- •Reading Material Text a
- •Before reading the text try to discuss the following questions.
- •Now read the text, translate it and get ready to do the exercises after the text. Geography
- •Word Study
- •Comprehension and Discussion
- •Origin and development of geography. Early history
- •Geographic methods. Map location and measurement
- •The Round Earth on Flat Paper
- •Dialogue
- •Listening Comprehension Text “Geography”
- •Revision
- •What is science?
- •Становление географии как науки
- •Active Vocabulary
- •Additional Reading Geography and people: Ptolemy
- •Components of maps
- •Maps and graphs Maps
- •Isoline maps
- •Choropleth
- •Topological maps
- •Proportional flow maps
- •Dot maps
- •Line graphs
- •Scattergraphs
- •Pie charts
- •Reading Material Text a
- •The History of Exploration
- •Word Study
- •Comprehension and Discussion
- •Captain Cook
- •Text c The Mystery of the Franklin Expedition
- •Text d
- •The History of Maps
- •Dialogue
- •Listening Comprehension Text “Christopher Columbus”
- •Revision
- •Questions:
- •II. Первое русское кругосветное путешествие
- •Active Vocabulary
- •Additional Reading Famous Russian navigators
- •Navigation Tools
- •Unit III
- •Reading Material Text a
- •Before we start reading let’s recollect the composition of the solar system.
- •What does the solar system consist of?
- •What heavenly object is the most beautiful (mysterious, important)?
- •The Universe and the Solar System
- •Word Study
- •Comprehension and Discussion
- •Our local star
- •Text c The Evolution of the Universe
- •Text d Galaxies
- •Dialogue
- •Is the Sun Good or Bad for Us?
- •Is the sun good or bad for us?
- •Listening Comprehension Text “Stars”
- •Fill in the gaps.
- •Note down the temperature of:
- •Note down the colours of :
- •Revision
- •The Lunar Surface
- •Active Vocabulary
- •Additional Reading The Planets
- •Mercury
- •Jupiter
- •Uranus and Neptune
- •Stellar Evolution
- •Unit IV
- •Reading Material Text a
- •Before reading the passage discuss these points with a partner.
- •Is the earth a perfect sphere?
- •This Earth of Ours
- •Word Study
- •Comprehension and Discussion
- •Volcanic Eruptions
- •Text c The Earth. Size. Shape.
- •Text d The Earth
- •Dialogue Discussing the age of the earth
- •Listening Comprehension Text “The Earth’s shape”
- •1. What is the “equatorial bulge”?
- •2. Are all three models only approximations?
- •Revision
- •History of the Earth
- •Latitude and Longitude
- •Active Vocabulary
- •Additional Reading Yellowstone National Park
- •The geological setting
- •Hydrothermal features
- •Reading Material Text a
- •The Atmosphere: Properties and composition
- •Word Study
- •Comprehension and Discussion
- •Oxygen-Carbon Dioxide Cycle
- •The Ozone Layer
- •The Ionosphere
- •Dialogue
- •Listening Comprehension Text “The Atmosphere”
- •Part b. Listening activities
- •Revision
- •Air pollution
- •Active Vocabulary
- •Additional Texts Greenhouse gases
- •The air we breathe
- •Unit VI
- •Reading Material Text a
- •Before reading the text discuss these points with a partner.
- •Now read the text, translate it and get ready to do the exercises after the text. Climate
- •Word study
- •Climate
- •Comprehension and Discussion
- •The climate of the uk
- •The World’s Inconstant Climate
- •Methods of weather modification
- •Weather
- •Days of Abnormal Weather
- •Vocabulary
- •Days of Abnormal Weather Text 1
- •Interpretation
- •Weather Forecast
- •Listening Comprehension Text “The Climate”
- •Revision
- •Climate
- •Weather maps
- •Project Writing
- •Active Vocabulary
- •Additional Reading Climatic Change
- •Origin of Climatic Change
- •Ocean Currents
- •Unit VII
- •Reading Material Text a
- •Before reading the passage discuss these points with a partner.
- •Into how many parts is the earth’s surface divided?
- •How are land and sea distributed?
- •Now read the text, translate it and get ready to do the exercises after the text. Land Forms of the Earth
- •Word Study
- •The Alps
- •Comprehension and Discussion
- •The Surface of the Ground
- •Continental Drift
- •Wegener’s Theory
- •Text d The Soil Beneath our Feet
- •Dialogue Discussing the process of erosion
- •Listening Comprehension Text “Continental drift”
- •Fill in the gaps.
- •Note down the terms used by the lecturer.
- •Note down the thickness of the asthenosphere.
- •Revision
- •Relief form of the earth
- •Earthquake waves
- •Earthquakes
- •Active Vocabulary
- •Additional Reading Erosion
- •Weathering
- •1999 A bad year for earthquakes
- •Limestone in Europe
- •Vulcanism
- •Volcanic Eruptions
- •Glaciers
- •Minerals
- •What Minerals Are
- •Mineral Properties
- •The Earth’s Interior
- •Interior Structure
- •Rock Classification
- •Igneous Rocks
- •Sedimentary Rocks
- •Grammar focus the system of tenses
- •Charles Robert Darwin
- •Passive voice
- •The Greenhouse Effect
- •Participle
- •The gerund
- •Функции герундия в предложении и способы его перевода на русский язык
- •Infinitive
- •I. Образование
- •II. Функции инфинитива в предложении.
- •Complex Object
- •Complex Subject
- •Subjunctive mood
- •Subjunctive Mood Conditional Sentences
- •Modal verbs
- •(Выражение «вероятности», «предположения»)
- •The system of tenses
- •Charles Robert Darwin
Volcanic Eruptions
A volcanic eruption is one of the most awesome spectacles in all nature. Usually earthquakes provide a warning a few hours or a few days beforehand – minor shocks probably caused by the movement of gases and liquids underground. An explosion or a series of explosions begins the eruption, sending a great cloud billowing upward from the crater. In the cloud are various gases, dust, fragments of solid material blown from the crater and the upper part of the volcano’s orifice, and larger solid fragments representing molten rock blown to bits and hurled upward by the violence of the explosions.
Gas continues to issue in great quantities, and explosions recur at intervals. The cloud may persist for days or weeks with its lower part glowing red at night. Activity gradually slackens, and presently a tongue of white-hot lava spills over the edge of the crater or pours out of a fissure on the mountain slope. Other flows may follow the first, and explosive activity may continue with diminished intensity. Slowly the volcano becomes quiescent, until only a small steam cloud above the crater suggests its activity.
Not all eruptions by any means follow this particular pattern. Volcanoes are notoriously individualistic, each one having some quirks of behavior not shared by others. In one group of volcanoes the explosive type of activity is dominant, little or no fluid lava appearing during eruptions. Cones of these volcanoes, built entirely of fragmental material ejected in a solid or nearly solid state, are very steep sided; examples are found in the West Indies, in Japan, and in the Philippines. Other volcanoes, like those of Hawaii, have eruptions characterized by quiet lava flows with little explosive activity. Mountains built by these volcanoes are broad and gently sloping, quite different from the usual volcanic structure. The most common kind of volcano is neither wholly of the “explosive” type nor wholly of the “quiet” type, but has eruptions in which both lava flows and gas explosions occur.
The chief factors that determine whether an eruption will tend to be a largely quiet lava flow or tend to be explosive are the viscosity of the magma and the amount of gas it contains. (The greater the viscosity of a liquid, the less freely it flows: honey is more viscous than water.) Magma is a complex mixture of the oxides of various metals with silica and usually has an abundance of gas dissolved in it under pressure. Like most molten silicates it is extremely viscous, and with rare exceptions lava creeps downhill slowly, like thick syrup or tar. The viscosity depends upon chemical composition; magmas with high percentages of silica are the most viscous. The presence of gas also affects viscosity; magmas with little gas are the most viscous. If the magma feeding a volcano happens to be rich in both gas and silica, the eruption will be explosive. A magma with modest gas and silica contents results in a quiet eruption.
The gaseous products of volcanic activity include water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, and various sulfur compounds. The most prominent constituent is water vapor. Some of it comes from groundwater heated by magma, some comes form the combination of hydrogen in the magma with atmospheric oxygen, and some was formerly incorporated in rocks deep in the crust and is carried upward by the magma to be released at the surface. Much of the water vapor condenses when it escapes to give rise to the torrential rains that often accompany eruptions.