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The use of computers in medical education is diverse. They can be used for managing the learning process, for distributing content, for assessing the student’s knowledge or skills, and so on. In this case, they can be regarded as educational tools. As is clear from the above information systems are extensively used in the practice of health professionals. Students should be taught the benefits, but also the limitations of the use of information systems. Finally the information systems have to be developed. To be able to do so students need additional education in medical informatics.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.Institute of Medicine. To err is human: Building a safer health system. The National Academies Press; 2000.

2.Qayumi AK, et al. Comparison of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) versus traditional textbook methods for training in abdominal examination (Japanese experience). Med Ed 2004;38:1080–1088.

3.Hasman A, Haux R, Albert A. A systematic view on medical informatics. Comp Meth Prog Biomed 1996;51: 131–139.

4.Haux R, Grant A, Hasman A, Hovenga E, Knaup P. Recommendations of the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA) on education in health and medical informatics. Methods Inf Med 2001;40:78–82.

5.http://www.hon.ch (last visited 21 December 2004).

6.van Merode GG, Groothuis S, Hasman A. Entreprise resource planning for hospitals. Int J Med Inform 2004;73: 493–501.

7.Fries JF. Alternatives in medical record formats. Med Care 1974;12:871–881.

MEDICAL ENGINEERING SOCIETIES AND ORGANIZATIONS

ARTHUR T JOHNSON

University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland

PATRICIA I HORNER

Landover, Maryland

INTRODUCTION

Modern technology has transformed the practice of medicine. We can now see where we could not before, conduct surgery with minimal trauma, intervene at the genetic level, replace whole natural organs with functional artificial ones, make rapid diagnoses, and peer into the workings of the brain. More patients are surviving, and those who do are living better. Much of the credit for these advances goes to the engineers, physicians, and physiologists who together decided what needed to be done, the science required to support it, and how it could be made practical. Medical engineers are now very much involved in the process of developing medical advances. They bring to medicine the abilities of conceptualization, computation,

and commercialization. They use varied tools such as biophysics, applied mathematics, physiological modeling, bioinstrumentation and control, imaging, and biomechanics to accomplish their advances.

The result is that there are nearly as many subspecialties of medical engineering as there are medical specialties. Tissue engineers, for instance, grow bioartificial tissues and organs as replacements; metabolic engineers find means to adjust cellular metabolic pathways to produce greater quantities of biochemicals and hormones; and rehabilitation engineers design new prostheses or modify existing units to reestablish adequate function in patients who have lost ability usually as the result of trauma. There are medical engineers working with biosensors, bioprocess optimization, multiple imaging modes, pancreatic function, vascular replacement, and drug delivery. Biomaterials engineers have produced materials that can function in different regional corporal environments. Indeed, there is no part of the human body that has not been studied by medical engineers to improve or replace lost function.

As the body of medical knowledge has increased overall and has been repeatedly split more and more finely into specialties, there has been a concomitant proliferation of organizations to communicate, share, and advocate action related to their particular specialties. Some of these would be recognized as chiefly engineering organizations with application interests in medicine; some are medical societies with significant engineering contributions. There is almost no significant human disease, physiological system, organ, or function without a group or organization representing associated interests. There is even a group interested in developing synthetic biological forms that, although it is too premature to link with medicine, may someday have a profound effect on medicine. All of these groups can be found by searching the Internet, and any attempt to enumerate them here would be outdated very quickly.

DEFINITIONS

Progress in biological science and engineering has not been made with a clear distinction between medical and nonmedical applications. Advances in human medicine often find applications as well in veterinary medicine. Genetic coding techniques have been applied equally to humans and fruit flies. Prospective biomaterials are modeled on computer without regard for the ultimate specific application, and they are tested in animals, plants, or fungi before approval for human use. Progress toward better nutrition through science, and toward purer environments through improved pollutant detection monitoring, have resulted in better human health for most humans living in the developed world. Biology is biology, whether applied to human health care or not, so a convergence of basic knowledge and methods between medical and biological engineers is expected to continue.

Several relevant definitions attempt to distinguish among various fields where engineers have and will continue to contribute.

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The U.S. National Institutes for Health (NIH) has the following definition of bioengineering:

Bioengineering integrates physical, chemical, mathematical, and computational sciences and engineering principles to study biology, medicine, behavior, and health. It advances fundamental concepts; creates knowledge from the molecular to the organ systems levels; and develops innovative biologics, materials, processes, implants, devices, and informatics approaches for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, for patient rehabilitation, and for improving health.

The U.S. National Science Foundation program in Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology (BEB) describes its program in the following way:

Advances the knowledge base of basic engineering and scientific principles of bioprocessing at both the molecular level (biomolecular engineering) and the manufacturing scale (bioprocess engineering). Many proposals supported by BEB programs are involved with the development of enabling technologies for production of a wide range of biotechnology products and services by making use of enzymes, mammalian, microbial, plant, and/or insect cells to produce useful biochemicals, pharmaceuticals, cells, cellular components, or cell composites (tissues).

The Whitaker Foundation definition of biomedical engineering is as follows:

Biomedical engineering is a discipline that advances knowledge in engineering, biology, and medicine, and improves human health through cross-disciplinary activities that integrate the engineering sciences with the biomedical sciences and clinical practice. It includes: 1) The acquisition of new knowledge and understanding of living systems through the innovative and substantive application of experimental and analytical techniques based on the engineering sciences, and 2) The development of new devices, algorithms, processes, and systems that advances biology and medicine and improve medical practice and health care delivery.

And, finally, the Institute of Biological Engineering (IBE) defines biological engineering as follows:

Biological engineering is the biology-based engineering discipline that integrates life sciences with engineering in the advancement and application of fundamental concepts of biological systems from molecular to ecosystem levels. The emerging discipline of biological engineering lies at the interfaces of biological sciences, engineering sciences, mathematics and computational sciences. It applies biological systems to enhance the quality and diversity of life.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

In 1948, in New York City, a group of engineers from the Instrument Society of America (ISA) and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE), with professional interests in the areas of X-ray and radiation apparatus used in medicine, held the First Annual Conference on Medical Electronics. Soon thereafter the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE), joined with the ISA and AIEE, and the

series of annual meetings continued. Subsequent years witnessed a remarkable growth of interest in biomedical engineering and participation by other technical associations. By 1968 the original core group evolved into the Joint Committee on Engineering in Medicine and Biology (JCEMB), with five adherent national society members: the Instrument Society of America (ISA), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE), the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), and the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI), who jointly conducted the Annual Conference on Engineering in Medicine and Biology (ACEMB).

Professional groups responded vigorously to the demands of the times. Attendance at the annual conference by natural scientists and medical practitioners grew to approximately 40% of the total; medical associations requested formal participation with their technical counterparts on the JCEMB. New interdisciplinary organizations were formed. New intrasociety and intersociety groups, committees, and councils became active; meetings filled the calendar; and publications overflowed the shelves.

In 1968, a document was prepared that read as follows: WHEREAS:

1.Common interdisciplinary purposes cannot be well served by individual groups working independently from each other;

2.Certain associations have developed in attempts to meet the need;

3.Conferences and publications have proliferated in attempts to meet the needs;

4.At present, no mutually satisfactory mechanism exists for the coordination of the relevant groups and functions;

5.There does exist an annual meeting and proceedings publication sponsored by a limited number of societies through the Joint Committee on Engineering in Medicine and Biology (JCEMB);

6.The JCEMB is formally structured with a constitution, plural societal representati9on, and an established pattern of operation. This structure and pattern of operation, however, are not deemed adequate to fulfill present and future needs. To the best of our knowledge, there exists no other single organization that seems capable of fulfilling these needs.

THEREFORE, it is appropriate that a new organization be established.

On July 21, 1969, at the 22nd ACEMB in Chicago, Illinois, representatives of 14 national engineering, scientific, and medical associations founded the Alliance for Engineering in Medicine and Biology (AEMB). It was incorporated on December 24, 1969, in Washington, D.C. Lester Goodman, Ph.D., served as Founder President in

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1970–197l; Arthur C. Beall, MD(1972); Alan R. Kahn, MD(1973); Harry S. Lipscomb, MD(1974); Anthony Sances, Jr., Ph.D. (1975); Charles Weller, MD(1976–1977); Edward J. Hinman, MD MPH(1978–1979); Paul W. Mayer, MD(1980–1982); Francis M. Long, Ph.D., (1983–1984); Arthur T. Johnson, PE, Ph.D. (1985–1988); and Alfred R. Potvin, PE Ph.D. served as the final President in 1989–1990.

The Alliance operations were determined by an Administrative Council composed of delegates from each of its affiliates. Later the Alliance was to consist of more than 20 such organizations:

Aerospace Medical Association (ASMA)

American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS) American Association of Physicists in Medicine

(AAPM)

American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP) American College of Physicians (ACP) American College of Radiology (ACR) American College of Surgeons (ACP)

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)

American Institute of Biological Sciences (AIBS) American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine

(AIUM)

American Society for Artificial Internal Organs (ASAIO)

American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) American Society for Hospital Engineers of the

American Hospital Association (ASHE)

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air

Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) American Society of Internal Medicine (ASIM)

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumen-

tation (AAMI)

Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES)

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Instrument Society of America (ISA)

National Association of Bioengineers (NAB) Neuroelectric Society (NES)

RESNA—Rehabilitation Engineering & Assistive Technology Society of North America

Society for Advanced Medical Systems, now American Medical Informatics Association (AMIA)

Society for Experimental Stress Analysis (SESA) SPIE—International Society for Optical Engineering Alpha Eta Mu Beta—National Biomedical Engineering

Student

Honor Society, established under the auspices of A EMB.

The Alliance headquarters office opened on November 1, 1973. John H. Busser served as the first Executive Director. Patricia I. Horner served as Assistant Director, as Administrative Director, and succeeded Busser as the Executive Director. Among its goals, is the following excerpted in part from its constitution, bylaws, and recorded minutes:

to promote cooperation among associations that have an active interest in the interaction of Engineering and the physical sciences with medicine and the biological sciences in enhancement of biomedical knowledge and health care.

to establish an environment and mechanisms whereby people from relevant various disciplines can be motivated and stimulated to work together

to respond to the needs of its member societies, as expressed by their delegates, rather than to seek authoritative preeminence in its domain of interest. . .

to support and enhance the professional activities of its membership. . .

The 23rd ACEMB in Washington, D.C., in 1970, was the first held under the aegis of the Alliance. From 1979 to 1984, the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBS) held their conferences immediately preceding the ACEMB. The Society for Advanced Medical Systems, later to become AMIA, and the Biomedical Engineering Society also held their meetings for several years in conjunction with the ACEMB.

The accomplishments of the Alliance far outstripped the expectations of its founders. The Alliance more than fulfilled responsibilities for the annual conference inherited from the predecessor JCEMB, but the Alliance made important contributions through a variety of studies and publications ranging from a 5-year ultrasound research and development agendum to a guideline for technology procurement in health-care institutions:

First International Biomedical Engineering Workshop Series held in Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia, under the sponsorship of the National Science Foundation. This project was in cooperation with AIBS and the International Institute of Biomedical Engineering in Paris. Five workshops were held, and planning handbooks were completed.

Assessment of selected medical instrumentation; Tasks 1–4, ultrasonic diagnostic imaging; Task 5, radiologic and radionuclide imaging technology.

Summary guidelines and courses on technology procurement; practices and procedures for improving productivity in research and health-care institutions.

Information exchange and problem assessments in medical ultrasound, including preparation and distribution of a directory of federal activities, conducted instrumentation conferences, delineated training needs, assessed technology transfer potential, and prepared guidelines for the establishment of clinical ultrasound facilities.

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Joint U.S.–Egypt international technology transfer project in medical diagnostic ultrasound, including international workshops and the design and support of a focus laboratory for ultrasonic diagnosis at Cairo University Medical School.

Short courses for continuing education at the annual conference on engineering in medicine and biology.

International directory of biomedical engineers.

Before long, the proliferation of medical engineers, and competing interests among societies, led to a fragmentation of the field. It became clear that the Alliance no longer represented positions of the entire field. No organized group could speak for the entire profession, and the spirit of unity that had led to the development of AEMB no longer existed. It was time for a new beginning.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR MEDICAL

AND BIOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

engineers within the AIMBE ranges from the fields of clinical medicine to food, agriculture, and environmental bioremediation.

AIMBE’s mission is to

Promote awareness of the field and its contributions to society in terms of new technologies that improve medical care and produce more and higher quality food for people throughout the world.

Work with lawmakers, government agencies, and other professional groups to promote public policies that further advancements in the field.

Strive to improve intersociety relations and cooperation within the field.

Promote the national interest in science, engineering, and education.

Recognize individual and group achievements and contributions to medical and biological engineering.

In 1988, the National Science Foundation funded a grant to develop an infrastructure for bioengineering in the United States. The AEMB, jointly with the U.S. National Committee on Biomechanics (USNCB), was to develop a unifying organization for bioengineering in the United States. The co-principal investigators were Robert M. Nerem and Arthur T. Johnson, and Patricia Horner served as Project Director. The AEMB/USNCB Steering Committee consisted of Robert M. Nerem, Arthur T. Johnson, Michael J. Ackerman, Gilbert B. Devey, Clifford E. Brubaker, Morton H. Friedman, Dov Jaron, Winfred M. Phillips, Alfred R. Potvin, Jerome S. Schultz, and Savio L-Y Woo. The Steering Committee met in January and March 1989, and the first workshop was held in August 1989. Two more Steering Committee meetings were held in December 1989 and March 1990, and the second workshop was held in July 1990. The outcome of these two workshops was to establish the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering (AIMBE). All AEMB members voted to cease operation of the Alliance for Engineering in Medicine and Biology in 1990 and to transfer the AEMB assets and 501(c)3 status to AIMBE in 1991.

AIMBE opened an office in Washington, D.C., in 1995 with Kevin O’Connor as Executive Director. He was succeeded by Arthur T. Johnson in 2004 and Patricia FordRoegner in 2005. AIMBE Presidents have been as follows: Robert Nerem (1992–1993), Pierre Galletti (1994), Jerome Schultz (1995), Winfred Phillips (1996), Larry McIntire (1997), William Hendee (1998), John Linehan (1999), Shu Chien (2000), Peer Portner (2001), Buddy Ratner (2002), Arthur Coury (2003), Don Giddens (2004), Thomas Harris (2005), and Herbert Voigt (2006).

Representing over 75,000 bioengineers, the AIMBE seeks to serve and coordinate a broad constituency of medical and biological scientists and practitioners, scientific and engineering societies, academic departments, and industries. Practical engagement of medical and biological

AIMBE is composed of four sections:

The College of Fellows—1000 Persons who are the outstanding bioengineers in academic, industry, and government. These leaders in the field have distinguished themselves through their contributions in research, industrial practice, and/or education. Most Fellows come from the United States, but there are international Fellows.

The Academic Council—Universities with educational programs in bioengineering at the graduate or undergraduate level. Currently there are approximately 85 member institutions. Representative to the Council generally are chairs of their departments. Many also are members of the College of Fellows. The Council considers issues ranging from curricular standards and accreditation to employment of graduates and funding for graduate study.

The Council of Societies—The AIMBE’s mechanism coordinating interaction among 19 scientific organizations in medical and biological engineering. The purposes of the Council are to provide a collaborative forum for the establishment of society member positions on issues affecting the field of medical and biological engineering, to foster intersociety dialoge and cooperation that provides a cohesive public representation for medical and biological engineering, and to provide a way to coordinate activities of member societies with the activities of academia, government, the health-care sector, industry, and the public and private biomedical communities.

The Industry Council—A forum for dialog among industry, academia, and government to identify and act on common interests that will advance the field of medical and biological engineering and contribute to public health and welfare. Industrial organizations may be members of the Industry Council if they have substantial and continuing professional

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interest in the field of medical and biological engineering.

Current members of the Council of Societies are as follows:

American Association of Physicists in Medicine American College of Clinical Engineering

American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Food, Pharmaceutical and Bioengineering Division

American Medical Informatics Association

American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers

American Society for Artificial Internal Organs American Society for Biomechanics

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Bioengineering Division

Biomedical Engineering Society Controlled Release Society

IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society Institute of Biological Engineering

International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine

Orthopaedic Research Society

Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology Society of North America

Society for Biomaterials

SPIE: The International Society for Optical Engineering

Surfaces in Biomaterials Foundation

Current members of the Industry Council are as follows:

Biomet, Inc.

Boston Scientific Corporation

Genzyme Corporation

Medtronic, Inc.

Pequot Ventures

Smith þ Nephew

Vyteris, Inc.

Wright Medical Technology, Inc.

Zimmer, Inc.

The AIMBE Board of Directors oversees the work of the College of Fellows and the three councils. The Board consists of a President who is assisted by two Past Presidents, the President-Elect, four Vice-Presidents at Large, a Secre- tary-Treasurer, and the Chair of the College of Fellows— all of whom are elected by the Fellows. The Board also includes chairs of the other councils and chairs of all standing committees. AIMBE’s day-to-day operations are supervised by the Executive Director in the Washington headquarters.

AIMBE’s Annual Event each winter in Washington, D.C., provides a forum on the organization’s activities and is a showcase for key developments in medical and

biological engineering. The annual event includes a 1-day scientific symposium sponsored by the College of Fellows, a ceremony to induct the newly elected Fellows, and a 1-day series of business meetings focused on public policy and other issues of interest to AIMBE’s constituents. For additional information about AIMBE’s mission, memberships, and accomplishments, visit http://www.aimbe.org.

The AIMBE has focused on public policy issues associated with medical and biological engineering. The AIMBE enjoys high credibility and respect based on the stature of its Fellows, support from constituent societies, and its intention to be a forum for the best interests of the entire field. The AIMBE has taken positions on several important issues and advocated that they be adopted by various agencies and by Congress. A few of the AIMBE’S public policy initiatives that have met with success are as follows:

National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (NIBIB)—Created in 2000 with the help of AIMBE advocacy, the NIBIB has received strong support from the AIMBE and other institutions that value the role of technology in medicine, particularly the Academy of Radiological Research. The NIBIB has experienced rapid growth and development in all areas, including scientific programs, science administration, and operational infrastructure. The prognosis for the near future is continued growth and development especially in bioengineering, imaging, and interdisciplinary biomedical research and training programs.

FDA Modernization Act (FDAMA)—Enacted in 1997, this legislation amended the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act relation to the regulation of food, drugs, devices, and biological products. FDAMA enhanced the FDA’s mission in ways that recognized the Agency would be operating in a twenty-first century characterized by increasing technological, trade, and public health complexities.

Biomaterials Access Assurance Act—The 1998 legislation provides relief for materials suppliers to manufacturers of implanted medical devices by allowing those suppliers to be dismissed from lawsuits in which they are named if they meet the statutory definition of a ‘‘biomaterials supplier.’’

National Institutes of Health Bioengineering Consortium (BECON)—This is the focus of bioengineering activities at the NIH. The Consortium consists of senior-level representatives from all NIH institutes, centers, and divisions plus representatives of other Federal agencies concerned with biomedical research and development. The BECON is administered by NIBIB.

The AIMBE Hall of Fame was established in 2005 to recognize and celebrate the most important medical and biological engineering achievements contributing to the quality of life. The Hall of Fame provides tangible evidence of the contributions of medical and biological engineering during the following decades:

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1.1950s and earlier

Artificial kidney

X ray

Cardiac pacemaker

Cardiopulmonary bypass

Antibiotic production technology

Defibrillator

2.1960s

Heart valve replacement

Intraocular lens

Ultrasound

Vascular grafts

Blood analysis and processing

3.1970s

Computer-assisted tomography (CT)

Artificial hip and knee replacement

Balloon catheter

Endoscopy

Biological plant/food engineering

4.1980s

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Laser surgery

Vascular stents

Recombinant therapeutics

5.1990s

Genomic sequencing and micro-arrays

Positron emission tomography

Image-guided surgery

The AIMBE has now turned its attention to Barriers to Further Innovation. It is providing forums and platforms for identification and discussion of obstacles standing in the way of advances in medical and biological engineering. Barriers could be procedures, policies, attitudes, or information and education, anything that can yield when AIMBE constituents apply pressure at appropriate levels.

OTHER SOCIETIES

These are other general biomedical engineering societies that operate within the United States Among these, the Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES), Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBS), and the Institute for Biological Engineering (IBE) are probably the most inclusive. Others direct their attentions to specific parts of the discipline. There are trade organizations that have an

industry perspective (such as AdvaMed for the medical device industry and the Biotechnology Industry Organization (BID) for the biotech industry), and there are peripheral organizations that deal with public health, the environment, and biotechnology. Many of these organizations publish excellent journals, newsletters, and information sheets. Those from trade organizations are often distributed free of charge, but they do not include peer-reviewed articles. Information about these can be found on the Internet.

Internationally, an organizational hierarchy exists. National and transnational organizations can belong to the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE), and that confers membership privileges to all AIMBE members and constituent society members. The IFMBE and the International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP) together jointly sponsor a World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering every 3 years. The IOMP and IFMBE are members of the International Union for Physical and Engineering Sciences in Medicine (IUPESM), and the IUPESM, in turn, is a member of the International Council for Science (ICSU). ICSU members are national and international scientific unions and have a very broad and global outreach.

THE FUTURE

At least for the foreseeable future, new groups will be formed representing medical engineering specialties. Whether these groups organize formally and persist will depend on the continuing importance of their areas of focus. The organizations with a more general foci will continue to function and may spawn splinter groups. Given the political importance of concerted effort, organizations such as the AIMBE will continue to be active in promoting policy. Competitive pressures among different organizations, especially when expectations of continuing growth cannot be sustained, will always be a threat to the current order. Given that the cycle of competition and disorder leading to a realization that some ordered structure is preferable has been repeated at least once, there will continue to be some undercurrent of turmoil within the community of medical engineering organizations.

U.S. PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES AND ORGANIZATIONS

Biomedical Engineering Associations and Societies

Advamed. 1200 G Street NW, Suite 400, Washington, D.C. 20005. 202-783-8700, http://www.advamed.org. Stephen J. Ubl, President. 1300 Members.

Represents manufacturers of medical devices, diagnostic products, and medical information systems. AdvaMed’s members manufacture nearly 90% of the $80 billion of health-care technology purchased annually in the United States. Provides advocacy, information, education, and solutions necessary for success in a world of increasingly complex medical regulations.

Alpha Eta Mu Beta. 8401 Corporate Drive, Suite 140, Landover, MD 20785. 301-459-1999, http://www.ahmb.org.

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Herbert F. Voigt, National President; Patricia I. Horner, Executive Director. 20 chapters.

Alpha Eta Mu Beta, the National Biomedical Engineering Honor Society, was founded by Daniel Reneau at Louisiana Tech University in 1979. This organization was sponsored by the AEMB. The AEMB was established to mark in an outstanding manner those biomedical engineering students who manifested a deep interest and marked ability in their chosen life work to promote an understanding of their profession and to develop its members professionally.

American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering. 1901 Pennsylvania Ave NW, Suite 401, Washington, D.C. 20006. 202-496-9660, http://www.aimbe.org. Patricia Ford Roegner, Executive Director. 1000 Fellows; 18 Scientific Organizations; 85 Universities.

Founded in 1991 to establish an identity for the field of medical and biological engineering, which is the bridge between the principles of engineering science and practice and the problems and issues of biological and medical science and practice. The AIMBE comprises four sections. The College of Fellows with over 1000 persons who are the outstanding bioengineers in academia, industry, and government. The Academic Council is 85 universities with educational programs in bioengineering at the graduate or undergraduate level. The Council of Societies is 18 scientific organizations in medical and biological engineering. The Industry Council is a forum for dialog among industry, academia, and government. Principal activities include participation in formulation of public policy, dissemination of information, and education. Affiliated with the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering. Annual event each winter in Washington, D.C.

American Association of Engineering Societies. 1828 L Street NW, Suite 906, Washington, D.C. 20036. 202-296- 2237, http://www.aaes.org. Thomas J. Price, Executive Director. 26 Engineering Societies.

Founded in 1979 in New York City. Member societies represent the mainstream of U.S. engineering with more than one million engineers in industry, government, and academia. The AAES has four primary programs: communications, engineering workforce commission, international, and public policy. Governance consists of two representatives from each of 26 member societies. Convenes diversity summits, publishes engineering and technology degrees, and holds annual awards ceremony.

American Academy of Environmental Engineers. 130 Holiday Court, Suite 100, Annapolis, MD 21401. 410- 266-3311, http://www.aaee.net. David A. Asselin, Executive Director.

The American Sanitary Engineering Intersociety Board incorporated in 1955 became the American Academy of Environmental Engineers in 1966; and in 1973, it merged with the Engineering Intersociety Board. Principal purposes are improving the practice, elevating the standards, and advancing public recognition of environmental engineering through a program of specialty certification of qualified engineers.

American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 600 North River Road, Rosemont, IL 60018. 847-823-7186, http:// www.aaos.org. Karen L. Hackett, Chief Executive Officer. 24,000 Members.

Founded in Chicago in 1933. Provides education and practice management services for orthopedic surgeons and allied health professionals. Maintains a Washington, D.C., office. Annual spring meeting.

American Academy of Orthotists and Prosthetists. 526 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria, VA 22314. 703-836- 0788, http://www.oandp.org. Peter D. Rosenstein, Executive Director. 3000 Members.

Founded in 1970 to further the scientific and educational attainments of professional practitioners in the disciplines of orthotics and prosthetics. Members have been certified by the American Board for Certification in Orthotics and Prosthetics. Annual spring meeting.

American Association of Physicists in Medicine. One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740. 301-209-3350, http://www.aapm.org. Angela R. Keyser, Executive Director. 4700 Members.

Founded in Chicago in 1958 and incorporated in Washington in 1965. Promotes the application of physics to medicine and biology. Member society of the American Institute of Physics. Annual summer meeting.

American Chemical Society. 1155 Sixteenth Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20036. 800-227-5558, http://www.chemistry.org. Madeleine Jacobs, Executive Director, and CEO. 159,000 Members.

Founded in 1877 in New York City. Granted a national charter by Congress in 1937. Encourages the advancement of chemistry. Semiannual spring and fall meetings.

American College of Nuclear Physicians. 1850 Samuel Morse Drive, Reston, VA 20190. 703-326-1190, http:// www.acnponline.org. Virginia M. Pappas, Executive Director. 500 Members.

Established in 1974, the organization provides access to activities that encompass the business and economics of nuclear medicine as they impact nuclear medicine physicians. Semiannual meetings fall and winter.

American College of Physicians. 190 N. Independence Mall West, Philadelphia, PA 19106. 215-351-2600, http:// www.acponline.org. John Tooker, Executive Vice President. 119,000 Members.

Founded in New York City in 1915. Merged with the Congress of Internal Medicine in 1923 and merged in 1998 with the American Society of Internal Medicine. Patterned after England’s Royal College of Physicians. Members are physicians in general internal medicine and related subspecialties. Maintains a Washington, D.C., office. Annual spring meeting.

American College of Radiology. 1891 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191. 703-648-8900, http://www. acr.org. Harvey L. Neiman, Executive Director. 30,000 Members.

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Founded in 1923 in San Francisco and incorporated in California in 1924. Purpose is to improve the health of patients and society by maximizing the value of radiology and radiologists by advancing the science, improving patient service, and continuing education. Annual fall meeting.

American College of Surgeons. 633 N. St. Clair Street, Chicago, IL 60611. 312-202-5000, http://www.facs.org. Thomas R. Russell, Executive Director. 64,000 Fellows, 5000 Associate Fellows.

Founded in 1913 and incorporated in Illinois. U.S. member of the International Federation of Surgical Colleges. Members are Fellows who must meet high standards established by the College. Purpose is to improve the quality of care for the surgical patient by setting high standards for surgical education and practice. Annual fall clinical congress.

American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine. 6801 Lake Plaza Drive, Suite B-205, Indianapolis, IN 46220. 317-915-2250, http://www.acrm.org. Richard D. Morgan, Executive Director. 1700 Members, 15 Companies.

Founded in 1923 as the American College of Radiology and Physiotherapy. Name changed in 1926 to American College of Physical Therapy and in 1930 to American Congress of Physical Therapy. Changed again in 1945 to American Congress of Physical Therapy and in 1953 became American Congress of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. Adopted its current name in 1967. Provides education for professionals in medical rehabilitation. Fall annual meeting.

American Institute of Biological Sciences. 1444 I Street NW, Suite 200, Washington, D.C. 20005. 202-628-1500, http://www.aibs.org. Richard O’Grady, Executive Director. 80 Societies, 6000 Members.

Founded in 1947 as part of the National Academy of Sciences. Incorporated as an independent nonprofit since 1954. Absorbed America Society of Professional Biologists in 1969. Represents more than 80 professional societies with combined membership exceeding 240,000 scientists and educators. Also more than 6000 individual members. Purpose is to better serve science and society. Annual meeting in August.

American Institute of Chemical Engineers. 3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016. 212-591-8100, http://www.aiche.org. John Sofranko, Executive Director. 40,000 Members.

Organized in 1908 and incorporated in 1910. Member of Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, American National Standards Institute, American Association of Engineering Societies, and other related organizations. Purpose is to advance the chemical engineering profession. Annual meeting in November.

American Institute of Physics. One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740. 301-209-3131, http://www.ai- p.org. Marc H. Brodsky, Executive Director, and Chief Executive Officer. 10 Societies and 24 Affiliates.

Chartered in 1931 to promote the advancement of physics and its application to human welfare. Federation of 10 Member Societies representing spectrum of physical sciences.

American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine. 14750 Sweitzer Lane, Suite 100, Laurel, MD 20707. 301-498- 4100, http://www.aium.org. Carmine Valente, Chief Executive Officer.

Began in 1951 at a meeting of 24 physicians attending the American Congress of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. Membership includes biologists, physicians, and engineers concerned with the use of ultrasound for diagnostic purposes. Provides continuing education, CME tests, and accreditation of ultrasound laboratories. Annual fall meeting.

American Medical Informatics Association. 4915 St. Elmo Avenue, Suite 401, Bethesda, MD 20814. 301-657- 1291, http://www.amia.org. Don Detmer, President, and CEO. 3000 Members.

Founded in 1990 through a merger of three existing health informatics associations. Members represent all basic, applied, and clinical interests in health-care information technology. Promotes the use of computers and information systems in health care with emphasis on direct patient care. Semiannual meetings: spring congress in the West and fall annual symposium in the East.

American Society for Artificial Internal Organs. P.O. Box C, Boca Raton, FL 33429. 561-391-8589, http://www.asaio. net. 1400 Members.

Established in 1955 in Atlantic City, NJ. Annual June conference.

American Society for Engineering Education. 1818 N Street NW, Suite 600, Washington, D.C. 20036. 202- 331-3500, http://www.asee.org. Frank L. Huband, Executive Director. 12,000 Members, 400 Colleges, 50 Corporations.

Founded in 1893 as the Society for Promotion of Engineering Education. Incorporated in 1943 and merged in 1946 with Engineering College Research Association. Members include deans, department heads, faculty members, students, and government and industry representatives from all disciplines of engineering and engineering technology. Member of the American Association of Engineering Societies, Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering, and American Council on Education. Participating society of World Federation of Engineering Associations. Purpose is to further education in engineering and engineering technology. Annual June meeting.

American Society for Healthcare Engineering of the American Hospital Association. One North Franklin, 28th Floor, Chicago, IL 60606. 312-422-3800, http://www.ashe.org. Albert J. Sunseri, Executive Director.

Affiliate of the American Hospital Association. Annual June meeting.

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American Society for Laser Medicine and Surgery. 2404 Stewart Avenue, Wausau, WI 54401. 715-845-9283, http:// www.aslms.org. Dianne Dalsky, Executive Director. 3000 Members.

Founded in 1980 to promote excellence in patient care by advancing laser applications and related technologies. Annual spring meeting.

American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. 2950 Niles Road, St. Joseph, MI 49085. 269-429- 0300, http://www.asabe.org. Melissa Moore, Executive Vice President. 9000 Members.

Founded in 1907 as the American Society of Agricultural Engineers and changed its name in 2005. Dedicated to the advancement of engineering applicable to agricultural, food, and biological systems. Annual meeting in July.

American Society of Civil Engineers. 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191. 703-295-6000, http:// www.asce.org. Patrick J. Natale, Executive Director. 137,500 Members.

Founded in 1852 as the American Society of Civil Engineers and Architects. Dormant from 1855 to 1867, but it revived in 1868 and incorporated in 1877 as the American Society of Civil Engineers. Over 400 local affiliates, 4 Younger Member Councils, 230 Student Chapters, 36 Student Clubs, and 6 International Student Groups. Semiannual spring and fall meetings.

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Con- ditioning Engineers, Inc. 1791 Tullie Circle NE, Atlanta, GA 30329. 404-636-8400, http://www.ashrae.org.

Incorporated in 1895 as the American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, known after 1954 as American Society of Heating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. Merged in 1959 with American Society of Refrigerating Engineers to form American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. Annual summer meeting.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Three Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016. 212-591-7722, http:// www.asme.org. Virgil R. Carter, Executive Director. 120,000 Members.

Founded in 1880 and incorporated in 1881. Focuses on technical, educational, and research issues of engineering and technology. Sets industrial and manufacturing codes and standards that enhance public safety. Conducts one of the world’s largest technical publishing operations. Semiannual summer and winter meetings.

American Society of Neuroradiology. 2210 Midwest Road, Suite 207, Oak Brook, IL 60523. 630-574-0220, http://www.asnr.org. James B. Gantenberg, Executive Director/CEO. 2700 Members.

Founded in 1962. Supports standards for training in the practice of neuroradiology. Annual spring meeting.

American Society of Safety Engineers. 1800 E. Oakton Street, Des Plaines, IL 60018. 847-699-2929, http://

www.asse.org. Fred Fortman, Executive Director. 30,000 Members.

Founded in 1911 as the United Association of Casualty Inspectors and merged with the National Safety Council in 1924, becoming its engineering section. Became independent again in 1947 as the American Society of Safety Engineers and incorporated in 1962. There are 13 practice specialties, 150 chapters, 56 sections, and 64 student sections. Annual spring meeting.

Association for Computing Machinery. 1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036. 212-626-0500, http://www.acm.org. John R. White, Executive Director. 80,000 Members.

Founded in 1947 at Columbia University as Eastern Association for Computing Machinery and incorporated in Delaware in 1954. Affiliated with American Association for Advancement of Science, American Federation of Information Processing Societies, Conference Board of Mathematical Sciences, National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, and American National Standards Institute. Advancing the skills of information technology professionals and students. Annual fall meeting.

Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. 1100 North Glebe Road, Suite 220, Arlington, VA 22201. 703-525-4890, http://www.aami.org. Michael J. Miller, President. 6000 Members.

Founded in 1967, the AAMI is an alliance of over 6000 members united by the common goal of increasing the understanding and beneficial use of medical instrumentation and technology. Annual spring meeting.

Association of Biomedical Communications Directors.

State University of New York at Stony Brook, Media Services L3044 Health Sciences Center, Stony Brook, NY 11794. 631-444-3228. Kathleen Gebhart, Association Secretary. 100 Members.

Formed in 1974 as a forum for sharing information; adopted a Constitution and Bylaws in 1979, and incorporated in April 1979 in North Carolina. Members are directors of biomedical communication in academic health science settings. Annual spring meeting.

Association of Environmental Engineering and Science Professors. 2303 Naples Court, Champaign, IL 61822. 217-398-6969, http://www.aeesp.org. Joanne Fetzner, Secretary. 700 Members.

Formerly, in 1972, the American Association of Professors in Sanitary Engineering. Professors in academic programs throughout the world who provide education in the sciences and technologies of environmental protection. Biennial conference in July.

Biomedical Engineering Society. 8401 Corporate Drive, Suite 140, Landover, MD 20785. 301-459-1999, http:// www.bmes.org. Patricia I. Horner, Executive Director. 3700 Members.

Founded in 1968 in response to a need to give equal representation to both biomedical and engineering interests. The purpose of the Society is to promote the increase of biomedical engineering knowledge and its use. Member

320 MEDICAL ENGINEERING SOCIETIES AND ORGANIZATIONS

of American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering. Annual fall meeting.

Biophysical Society. 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814. 301-634-7114, http://www.biophysics.org. Ro Kampman, Executive Officer. 7000 Members.

Founded in 1957 in Columbus, OH, to encourage development and dissemination of knowledge in biophysics. Annual winter meeting.

Health Physics Society. 1313 Dolley Madison Boulevard, Suite 402, McLean, VA 22101. 703-790-1745, http:// www.hps.org. Richard J. Burk, Jr, Executive Secretary. 7000 Members.

Founded in 1956 in the District of Columbia and reincorporated in Tennessee in 1969. Society specializes in occupational and environmental radiation safety. Affiliated with International Radiation Protection Association. Annual summer meeting.

Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. P.O. Box 1369, Santa Monica, CA 90406. 310-394-1811, http://www. hfes.org. Lynn Strother, Executive Director. 50 Active Chapters and 22 Technical Groups.

Founded in 1957, formerly known as the Human Factors Society. An interdisciplinary organization of professional people involved in the human factors field. Member of the International Ergonomics Association. Annual meeting in September-October.

Institute for Medical Technology Innovation. 1319 F Street NW, Suite 900, Washington, D.C. 20004. 202-783- 0940, http://www.innovate.org. Martyn W.C. Howgill, Executive Director.

The concept was developed in 2003 by leaders in the medical device industry, and the Institute was incorporated and opened its offices in 2004. Purpose is to demonstrate the role, impact, and value of medical technology on health care, economy, and society, for the benefit of patients.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. 3 Park Avenue, 17th Floor, New York, NY 10016. 212-419-7900, http://www.ieee.org. Daniel J. Senese, Executive Director. 365,000 Members.

The American Institute of Electrical Engineers was founded in 1884 and merged in 1963 with the Institute of Radio Engineers. Three Technical Councils, 300 local organizations, 1300 student branches at universities, and 39 IEEE Societies including the Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society with 8000 members and meets annually in the fall. Maintains Washington, D.C. office.

Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology. 5005 Newport Drive Suite 506, Rolling Meadows, IL 60008. 847- 255-1561, http://www.iest.org. Julie Kendrick, Executive Director.

Formed by a merger of the Institute of Environmental Engineers and the Society of Environmental Engineers in 1953. Annual spring meeting.

Instrument Society of America. 67 Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709. 919-549-8411, http://www. isa.org. Rob Renner, Executive Director. 30,000 Members.

Founded in Pittsburgh in 1945. Charter member of American Automatic Control Council, affiliate of American Institute of Physics, member of American Federation of Information Processing Societies, member of American National Standards Institute, and U.S. representative to the International Measurement Confederation. Develops standards, certifies industry professionals, provides education and training, publishes books and technical articles, and hosts largest conference for automation professionals in the Western Hemisphere. Annual meeting in October.

International Biometric Society ENAR. 12100 Sunset Hills Road, Suite 130, Reston, VA 22090. 703-437-4377, http://www.enar.org. Kathy Hoskins, Executive Director. 6500 Members.

Founded in September 1947. Became the International Biometric Society in 1994. Annual March and June meetings.

International College of Surgeons. 1516 North Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60610. 312-642-3555, http:// www.icsglobal.org. Max C. Downham, Executive Director. 10,000 Members.

Founded in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1935 and incorporated in the District of Columbia in 1940. Federation of general surgeons and surgical specialists. Annual spring meeting of U.S. section and biennial international meetings.

International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 2118 Milvia Street, Suite 201, Berkeley, CA 94704. 510-841-1899, http://www.ismrm.org. Roberta A. Kravitz, Executive Director. 6,000 Members.

Formed as a merger of the Society for Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine in 1995. Promotes the application of magnetic resonance techniques to medicine and biology. Annual meetings in April/May.

Medical Device Manufacturers Association. 1919 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Suite 660, Washington, D.C. 20006. 202-349-7171, http://www.medicaldevices.org. Mark B. Leahey, Executive Director. 140 Companies.

Created in 1992. Supersedes Smaller Manufacturers Medical Device Association. Represents manufacturers of medical devices. Annual May meeting.

Radiation Research Society. 810 East 10th Street, Lawrence, KS 666044. 800-627-0629, http://www. radres.org. Becky Noordsy, Executive Director. 2025 Members.

Founded in 1952 as a professional society of persons studying radiation and its effects. Annual spring-summer meetings.

Radiological Society of North America. 820 Jorie Boulevard, Oak Brook, IL 60523. 630-571-2670, http://

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www.rsna.org. Dave Fellers, Executive Director. 37,577 Members.

Founded as Western Roentgen Society and assumed its current name in 1918. Members are interested in the application of radiology to medicine. Holds the largest medical meeting in the world annually in November with more than 60,000 in attendance.

RESNA—Rehabilitation Engineering & Assistive Technology Society of North America. 1700 N. Moore Street, Suite 1540, Arlington, VA 22209. 703-524-6686, http://www.resna.org. Larry Pencak, Executive Director. 1000 Members.

Founded in 1979 as the Rehabilitation Engineering Society of North America. In June 1995, the name was changed to the Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology Society of North American—RESNA. Twentyone special interest groups and seven professional specialty groups. Annual meeting in June.

SPIE—International Society for Optical Engineering. P.O. Box 10, Bellingham, WA 98227. 360-676-3290, http:// www.spie.org. Eugene G. Arthurs, Executive Director. 14,000 Members, 320 Companies.

Founded in 1956 in California as the Society of Photographic Instrumentation Engineers, it later became the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers and assumed its current name in 1981. Members are scientists, engineers, and companies interested in application of optical, electro-optical, fiber-optic, laser, and photographic instrumentation systems and technology. Semiannual meetings.

Society for Biological Engineering of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. 3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016. 212-591-7616, http://www.bio.aiche.org.

Established by the AIChE for engineers and applied scientists integrating biology with engineering.

Society for Biomaterials. 15000 Commerce Parkway, Suite C, Mt. Laurel, NJ 08054. 856-439-0826, http:// www.biomaterials.org. Victoria Elliott, Executive Director. 2100 Members.

Founded in 1974. Promotes biomaterials and their uses in medical and surgical devices. Annual spring meeting.

Society for Biomolecular Screening. 36 Tamarack Avenue, #348, Danbury, CT 06811. 203-743-1336, http:// www.sbsonline.org. Christine Giordano, Executive Director. 1080 Members, 230 Companies.

Supports research in pharmaceutical biotechnology and the agricultural industry that use chemical screening procedures. Annual fall meeting.

Society for Modeling and Simulation International. P.O. Box 17900, San Diego, CA 92177. 858-277-3888, http:// www.scs.org. Steve Branch, Executive Director.

Established in 1952 as the Simulation Council and incorporated in California in 1957 as the Simulation Councils. Became Society for Computer Simulation in 1973 and later changed its name to the current one. A founding

member of the Information Processing Societies and National Computer Confederation Board, and affiliated with American Association for the Advancement of Science. Holds regional simulation multiconferences.

Society of Interventional Radiology. 3975 Fair Ridge Drive, Suite 400 North, Fairfax, VA 22033. 703-691-1805, http://www.sirweb.org. Peter B. Lauer, Executive Director.

Society of Nuclear Medicine. 1850 Samuel Morse Drive, Reston, VA 20190. 703-709-9000, http://www.interactive.snm.org. Virginia Pappas, Executive Director.

Society of Rheology. Suite 1N01, 2 Huntington Quadrangle, Melville, NY 11747. 516–2403, http://www.rheology.org. Janis Bennett, Executive Director.

Permanent address is at the American Institute of Physics and is one of five founding members of the AIP. Members are chemists, physicists, biologists, and others concerned with theory and precise measurement of flow of matter and response of materials to mechanical force. Annual meeting held in October or November.

Professional Societies and Organizations of Other Countries

Pick up from IFMBE Affiliates on www.ifmbe.org.

Further Reading

Biomedical Engineers, Brief 519, G.O.E. 02.02.01; D.O.T. (4th ed.) 019. Chronicle Guidance Publications, Moravia, NY 13118, 1994.

Biomedical Engineers. Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2004-05 Edition. Bureau of Labor Statistics, US. Department of Labor. http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos262.htm.

Boykin D. Biomedical engineering takes center stage. Engineering Times 2004; 26 (9). National Society of Professional Engineers, 1420 King Street, Alexandria, VA 22314.

Collins CC. The retrospectroscope: Notes on the history of biomedical engineering in America. IEEE Eng Med Biol Mag Dec. 1988. IEEE Engineering in Medicine & Biology Society, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854.

Enderle J, editor. Charting the milestones of biomedical engineering. IEEE Eng Med Biol Mag, May 2002. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854.

Fagette PH je, Homer PI, editor. The Biomedical Engineering Society: An Historical Perspective. Landover, MD: The Biomedical Engineering Society; 2004.

Goodman L. The International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering—20 years on. Med Biol Eng Comput Jan. 1978. International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering.

Katona P. The Whitaker Foundation: The end will be just the beginning. IEEE Trans Med Imaging 2002;21(8). IEEE Engineering in Medicine & Biology Society, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854.

Johnson AT. Executive Director’s Report: What is ASMBE all about? ASMBE Newslett 2004:1.

Planning a Career in Biomedical Engineering (2004). Biomedical Engineering Society, 8401 Corporate Drive, Suite 140, Landover, MD 20785. http://www.bmes.org

Tompkins W. From the President. IEEE Eng Med Biol Mag, December 1988. IEEE Engineering in Medicine & Biology Society, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854.