Wasserscheid P., Welton T. - Ionic Liquids in Synthesis (2002)(en)

Ionic Liquids in Synthesis. Edited by Peter Wasserscheid, Thomas Welton Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA

ISBNs: 3-527-30515-7 (Hardback); 3-527-60070-1 (Electronic) XI

Preface

“We prided ourselves that the science we were doing could not, in any conceivable circumstances, have any practical use. The more firmly one could make that claim, the more superior one felt.”

The Two Cultures, C.P. Snow (1959)

A book about ionic liquids? Over three hundred pages? Why? Who needs it? Why bother? These aren’t simply rhetorical questions, but important ones of a nature that must be addressed whenever considering the publication of any new book. In the case of this one, as two other books about ionic liquids will appear in 2002, the additional question of differentiation arises – how is this distinctive from the other two? All are multi-author works, and some of the authors have contributed to all three books.

Taking the last question first, the answer is straightforward but important. The other two volumes are conference proceedings (one of a NATO Advanced Research Workshop, the other of an ACS Symposium) presenting cutting-edge snapshots of the state-of-the-art for experts; this book is structured. Peter Wasserscheid and Tom Welton have planned an integrated approach to ionic liquids; it is detailed and comprehensive. This is a book designed to take the reader from little or no knowledge of ionic liquids to an understanding reflecting our best current knowledge. It is a teaching volume, admirable for use in undergraduate and postgraduate courses, or for private learning. But it is not a dry didactic text - it is a user’s manual! Having established a historical context (with an excellent chapter by one of the fathers of ionic liquids), the volume describes the synthesis and purification of ionic liquids (the latter being crucially important), and the nature of ionic liquids and their physical properties. Central to this tome (both literally and metaphorically) is the use of ionic liquids for organic synthesis, and especially green organic synthesis, and this chapter is (appropriately) the largest, and the raison d’être for the work. The book concludes with much shorter chapters on the synthesis of inorganic materials and polymers, the study of enzyme reactions, and an overview and prospect for the area. This plan logically and completely covers the whole of our current knowledge of ionic liquids, in a manner designed to enable the tyro reader to feel confident in using them, and the expert to add to their understanding. This is the first book to

XII Preface

attempt this task, and it is remarkably successful for two reasons. Firstly, the volume has been strongly and wisely directed, and is unified despite being a multiauthor work. Secondly, the choice of authors was inspired; each one writes with authority and clarity within a strong framework. So, yes, this book is more than justified, it is a crucial and timely addition to the literature. Moreover, it is written and edited by the key people in the field.

Are ionic liquids really green? A weakly argued letter from Albrecht Salzer in Chemical and Engineering News (2002, 80 [April 29], 4-6) has raised this nevertheless valid question. Robin Rogers gave a tactful, and lucid, response, and I quote directly from this: “Salzer has not fully realized the magnitude of the number of potential ionic liquid solvents. I am sure, for example, that we can design a very toxic ionic liquid solvent. However, by letting the principles of green chemistry drive this research field, we can ensure that the ionic liquids and ionic liquid processes developed are in fact green. [. . .] The expectation that real benefits in technology will arise from ionic liquid research and the development of new processes is high, but there is a need for further work to demonstrate the credibility of ionic liquid-based processes as viable green technology. In particular, comprehensive toxicity studies, physical and chemical property collation and dissemination, and realistic comparisons to traditional systems are needed. It is clear that while the new chemistry being developed in ionic liquids is exciting, many are losing sight of the green goals and falling back on old habits in synthetic chemistry. Whereas it is true that incremental improvement is good, it is hoped that by focusing on a green agenda, new technologies can be developed that truly are not only better technologically, but are cleaner, cheaper, and safer as well.”

Figure 1: The rise in publications concerning ionic liquids as a function of time, as determined using SciFinder.

Preface XIII

Robin’s response is insightful. It reflects, in part, the burgeoning growth of papers in this area (see Figure 1) combined with the inevitable (and welcomed) rise in new researchers entering the area. However, with increasing activity comes the inevitable increasing “garbage” factor. In recent years we have (unfortunately) seen papers reporting physical data on ionic liquids that were demonstrably impure, liquids reported as solids and solids reported as liquids because of the impurity level, communications “rediscovering” and publishing work (without citation) already published in the patent literature, the synthesis of water-sensitive ionic liquids under conditions that inevitably result in hydrolysis, and academically weak publications appearing in commercial journals with lax refereeing standards. I truly believe that this book will help combat this; it should, and will, be referred to by all workers in the field. Indeed, if the authors citing it actually read it too, then the garbage factor should become insignificantly small!

In conclusion, this volume reflects well the excitement and rapid progress in the field of ionic liquids, whilst effectively providing an invaluable hands-on instruction manual. The lacunae are emphasised, and the directions for potential future research are clearly signposted. Unlike Snow in his renowned Two Cultures essay, many of us (Mamantov, Osteryoung, Wilkes, and Hussey, to name but a few of the founding fathers) who entered this area in its early (but not earliest!!) days prided ourselves that the science we were doing could not fail to have a practical use. Whether that use was battery applications, fuel cells, electroplating, nuclear reprocessing, or green industrial synthesis, we all believed that ionic liquids (or roomtemperature molten salts, as they were then commonly known) offered a unique chemical environment that would (must) have significant industrial application. Because of this, we suffered then (and to some extent now) from the disdain of the “pure” scientists, who failed (and still fail) to appreciate that, if selecting an example to study to illustrate a fundamental scientific principle, there is actually some merit in selecting a product manufactured at the one million ton per annum level, rather than an esoteric molecule of no use and even less interest. Unfortunately, the pride and superiority Snow refers to is still alive and well, and living in the hearts of some of the academic establishment. I believe that this book will help tackle this prejudice, and illustrate that useful practical applications and groundbreaking fundamental science are not different, opposing areas, but synergistic sides of the same coin.

K.R. Seddon

May, 2002

	Ionic Liquids in Synthesis. Edited by Peter Wasserscheid, Thomas Welton
	Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
XIV	ISBNs: 3-527-30515-7 (Hardback); 3-527-60070-1 (Electronic)

A note from the editors

This book has been arranged in several chapters that have been prepared by different authors, and the reader can expect to find changes in style and emphasis as they go through it. We hope that, in choosing authors who are at the forefront of their particular specialism, this variety is a strength of the book. The book is intended to be didactic, with examples from the literature used to illustrate and explain. Therefore, not all chapters will give a comprehensive coverage of the literature in the area. Indeed, with the explosion of interest in some applications of ionic liquids comprehensive coverage of the literature would not be possible in a book of this length. Finally, there is a point when one has to stop and for us that was the end of 2001. We hope that no offence is caused to anyone whose work has not been included. None is intended.

Acknowledgements

We would like to sincerely thank everyone who has been involved in the publication of this book. All of our authors have done a great job in preparing their chapters and it has been a pleasure to read their contributions as they have come in to us. When embarking on this project we were both regaled with stories of books that never saw the light of day because of missed deadlines and the general tardiness of contributors. All of our colleagues have met their commitments in the most timely and enthusiastic manner. We are truly grateful for them making our task so painless. We would also like to thank the production team at VCH-Wiley, particularly Dr. Karen Kriese.

Finally, in a project like this, someone must take responsibility for any errors that have crept in. Ultimately we are the editors and this responsibility is ours. So we apologise unreservedly for any mistakes that have found their way into the book.

P. Wasserscheid, T. Welton

August, 2002

Ionic Liquids in Synthesis. Edited by Peter Wasserscheid, Thomas Welton Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA

ISBNs: 3-527-30515-7 (Hardback); 3-527-60070-1 (Electronic) XV

Contributors

Prof. Dr. Joan F. Brennecke	Dr. Charles M. Gordon
Department of Chemical Engineering	University of Strathclyde
University of Notre Dame	Department of Pure and
Notre Dame, IN 46556	Applied Chemistry
	Thomas Graham Building
Prof. James H. Davis, jr.	295 Cathedral Street
Department of Chemistry	Glasgow G1 1XL
University of South Alabama	Scotland, UK
Mobile, Alabama 36688
USA	Prof. Dr. David M. Haddleton
	University of Warwick
Dr. Martyn J. Earle	Department of Chemistry
School of Chemistry	Coventry CV4 7AC
The Queen’s University of Belfast	U.K.
Stranmills Road
Belfast BT9 5AG, Northern Ireland	Dr. Chris Hardacre
	Physical Chemistry
Dr. Frank Endres	School of Chemistry
Institut für Physikalische Chemie	The Queen’s University of Belfast
Universität Karlsruhe	Stranmillis Road
D-76128 Karlsruhe	BELFAST BT9 5AG
	Northern Ireland
PD Dr. Andreas Dölle
Institut für Physikalische Chemie	Dr. Claus Hilgers
RWTH Aachen	Solvent Innovation GmbH
D-52056 Aachen	Alarichstraße 14-16
Germany	D-0679 Köln
	Germany

XVI Contributors

Dr. John Holbrey Department of Chemistry The University of Alabama Tuscaloosa, AL 35487 [e-mail]

Prof. Dr. Udo Kragl

Technische Chemie,

Universität Rostock

Fachbereich Chemie

Buchbinderstr. 9

D-18051 Rostock

Dr. Hugh C. de Long Department of Chemistry US Naval Academy

572 Holloway RD Annapolis, MD 21402-5026 USA

Dr. Hélène Olivier-Bourbigou Division cinetique a Catalyse Institut Francais du Petrole 129 Av. DeBois-Preau

92852 Rueil-Malmaison, France

Prof. Dr. Robin D. Rogers

Professor of Chemistry

Director, Center for

Green Manufacturing

Department of Chemistry

The University of Alabama

Tuscaloosa, AL 35487

Prof. K. R. Seddon

Chair of Inorganic Chemistry

School of Chemistry

The Queen’s University of Belfast

Stranmillis Road

BELFAST BT9 5AG

Northern Ireland

Dr. Paul C. Trulove

AFOSR/NL

801 North Randolph Street

Arlington, VA 22203-1977

USA

Dr. Peter Wasserscheid

Institut für Technische Chemie und Makromolekulare Chemie der RWTH Aachen

Worringer Weg 1

D-52074 Aachen Germany

Dr. Tom Welton

Department of Chemistry

Imperial College

London SW7 2AY UK

Prof. John S. Wilkes

Department of Chemistry

2355 Fairchild Drive, Suite 2N255

USAF, Colorado 80840-6230

USA

	Ionic Liquids in Synthesis. Edited by Peter Wasserscheid, Thomas Welton
	Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
356	ISBNs: 3-527-30515-7 (Hardback); 3-527-60070-1 (Electronic)

Index

a

ab initio method			153 ff.
acetate	5, 64
acetylation		208
acetylation reaction 204 ff.
acidity	43
activation energy			164
acylation	291, 343 ff.
addition reaction			191, 193
alkanesulfonate			99
alkylammonium			2, 94, 96, 137
– chloride		2, 137
– nitrate		2, 96
– sulfonate 96
– thiocyanate			96

alkylation 9, 24 f., 29, 77, 89, 100, 185, 193, 196, 198 ff., 201 ff., 264,

270, 275, 277
1-alkylimidazole		9, 11, 327
alkylimidazolium		59, 111, 123, 189
1-alkylimidazolium			9
– chloride	9
– nitrate	9
– tetrafluoroborate			9

1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium [RMIM] 9, 11 f., 16 f., 24, 43 ff., 50 ff., 73 ff., 128, 136 ff., 146 ff., 149, 328

–bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide 51, 52, 73

– bromide	52
– chloride	52
– halide	11, 16

–hexafluorophosphate 52, 74, 146 ff., 328

– tetrachloroaluminate		52
– tetrachloropalladate		146
– tetrafluoroborate	51 ff., 146, 149
– triflate 52
alkylphosphonium	137
alkylpyridinium 4

1-alkylpyridinium					9, 12, 135, 138,
145
– alkylsulphate					138
– chloride			145
allylation		187
allylic alkylation				252
allylic substitution					252
aluminium			295, 297 ff., 302, 306 ff.,
309 ff., 312
aluminium chloride					3, 12, 17, 33,
43, 47, 52, 70, 108 ff., 117 ff., 131,
135, 143 ff., 177 ff., 180 ff., 192,
194, 196 ff., 201 ff., 210, 215,
224 ff., 228, 245 ff., 266, 273,
275 ff., 278, 290 ff., 299, 306 ff.,
309 ff., 319 ff., 322 ff., 327 ff., 331 f.
amidation			340
amine	36
1-(3-aminopropyl)imidazole 35 ff.
ammonium			34 ff., 39, 42, 46, 100,
107, 136, 200
– halide			100
anion exchange				8
antimony		298, 300 ff., 304 ff.
Arrhenius equation					164, 170
arsenic	298, 304
aza-Diels-Alder reaction 183

b

battery	2, 5, 45, 70, 103, 298, 350,
353
Beckmann rearrangement				189
Beer-Lambert relationship				140
benzensulfonate			240
benzimidazolium			138
benzoylation		208
Berson’s W scale			100
Biginelli reaction			190
binary mixture		47

Index 357

biocatalysis	336	ff., 339, 342, 345,	97, 99 f., 113, 144 ff., 149, 154,
353			163 ff., 166 f., 171 ff., 181, 185 ff.,
biocatalyst	338, 343, 346		190 ff., 194, 201, 215, 218, 231 ff.,
biotransformation		336 ff., 340, 345	235 ff., 242, 249 ff., 261 ff., 264,
biphasic reaction		190	266, 270 ff., 281 ff., 304, 312 ff.,
biphasic system		69 ff., 72, 77	325 ff., 329, 331 ff., 337, 339 ff.,

bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide			343 ff.
15, 30, 33, 35, 44, 47, 53, 64, 66, 76,			– hydrogensulfate			201
107, 114, 137, 221			– lactate	183
Born-Landé equation		45	– methylsulphate			340
Bragg’s law	134		– nitrate	18, 88, 261
bromide 5, 104, 107, 137, 242			– octylsulfate		216
bromoaluminate 66, 131			– perchlorate		97
Brønsted acid	191, 196		– tetracarbonylcobaltate				225
Brønsted superacid		18	– tetrachloropalladate				146
buffered ionic liquid		109	– tetrafluoroborate			16, 65 ff.,

butylation	198				89 ff., 97, 104, 106, 149, 187 ff.,
1-butyl-3-ethyl-imidazolium [BEIM]					190 ff., 194 ff., 215, 223, 225, 229,
61, 64, 66, 113					231, 234, 242 ff., 251 ff., 261 ff.,
– bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide					266, 270 ff., 282, 291, 337, 340,
61, 113					342 ff.
– mesylate		61, 113			– triflate		61, 97, 113, 195, 251,
– triflate		61, 113			261, 271
– trifluoroacetate			61, 113		– trifluoroacetate			61, 113, 261,
1-butylimidazole 35					343 ff.
1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium [BMIM]					1-butyl-4-methylpyridinium					275
16, 18 ff., 25 ff., 29, 37, 53, 59, 61 f.,					– chloride		275
64 ff., 73 ff., 77 ff., 84, 86 ff., 96 ff.,					1-butylpyridinium [BP]				12, 41, 62 f.,
99 f., 104, 106, 113, 115, 144 ff.,					88, 106, 108, 115 f., 120, 122, 135,
149, 154, 163 ff., 166 f., 171 ff., 181,					145, 181, 189, 324, 331 ff.
183, 185 ff., 190 ff., 194 ff., 201 ff.,					– bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide
207 ff., 215 ff., 218, 223, 225 ff.,					63, 116, 120, 122
229 ff., 234 ff., 242 ff., 245 ff.,					– chloride		108, 135, 181, 331
249 ff., 261 ff., 264, 266, 268,					– chloroaluminate			62, 115
270 ff., 273, 277, 281 ff., 290 ff.,					– hexafluorophosphate				145
304, 306 ff., 309 ff., 312 ff.,					– tetrafluoroborate			63, 88, 106,
319, 325 ff., 329, 331 ff., 337,					116, 120, 122, 145, 189, 324, 332
339 ff.					butyltriphenylphosphonium					240
– bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide					– tosylate		240
25, 27, 61, 77, 97, 106, 113, 261,
270, 337, 339, 343 ff.					c
– bromide		223, 242, 268, 290			cadmium	301
– chloride		18, 29, 77, 97, 201 ff.,			capacitor	103
215, 225 ff., 245 ff., 273, 277,					carbene	34, 145, 223 ff., 242, 267 ff.,
292 ff., 306 ff., 309 ff., 319					290, 329
– chloroaluminate 62, 115					carbonylation		252
– chloroferrate			207 ff.		Carius tube		10
– chlorostannate			234		catalysis	25 f., 39, 145, 174, 210,
– chlorozincate			264		213 ff., 218 ff., 221 ff., 225, 230,
– halide	261				234, 244, 253, 258 ff., 263, 266 ff.,
– hexafluoroantimonate				195, 201,	269 ff., 288, 293, 302, 327, 338, 353
229 ff., 261, 343					– biphasic		71, 214, 218 ff., 230,
– hexafluorophosphate				19, 26, 37,	234, 244, 258 ff., 266 ff., 269 ff.,
53, 59, 61, 73 ff., 77 ff., 84, 86 ff.,					293

358	Index
	– heterogeneous	218 ff., 222, 253,
258, 288
	– homogeneous	70, 213 ff.,
	218 ff., 222, 253, 258 ff., 263, 288,
353
	– multiphasic 220, 259 ff., 263
	– phase-transfer	258

–transition metal, see transition metal catalysis

catalyst	33, 69 ff., 77 ff., 193, 201 ff.,
207, 214, 218, 222, 225 ff., 229 ff.,
234 ff., 241, 243 ff., 246, 248,
250 ff., 258 ff., 263, 265 ff., 269 ff.,
275 ff., 278, 281, 283 ff., 287, 300,
319, 326, 328 ff., 332, 336, 338, 348,
352 f.
– activity		319
– complex		213 ff., 218 ff.
– concentration				271, 281
– consumption				241, 272, 281
– deactivation			244
– decomposition				72, 283
– heterogeneous				338
– layer	218, 243, 251 f.
– leaching		70 ff., 235
– lifetime		220, 235, 250
– phase 219, 229, 252, 259 ff.,
269, 287
– poison		270
– precursor			225, 285
– recovery		277 f.
– recycling		70, 234, 243, 248, 260,
276, 278, 284, 328f.
– removal		329
– separation			234, 248, 258, 263,
276, 281
– solubility		69, 213, 221
– solution		237, 251, 283
– solvent		219, 252, 266, 272
– stability		336
– structure		319
– support		78
– system		77, 244
C-C-coupling 217
cerium	297, 300
charge density			87
chemical stability				43
chloride	44, 46, 59, 69 ff., 84, 99,

104, 107, 109, 120 ff., 131, 137, 142 ff., 159 ff., 185, 224, 227, 278, 291, 299, 332

chlorination 192 ff. chloroaluminate 3 ff., 18, 22 f., 27,

33 ff., 41, 43, 64 ff., 104 ff., 107 ff.,

120 ff., 131, 144, 156, 174 ff., 177,

179 ff., 191 ff., 198, 200 f., 203, 205,

207 ff., 214 ff., 221, 225 ff., 245 ff., 266, 270, 275 f., 278, 289, 292, 297 ff., 309, 320 ff., 326 ff., 332 f.

chloroferrate			225
chlorogallate			198, 200
chlorostannate			207, 221, 227
chromium		246, 300
Claisen rearrangement 191, 194
cluster	145
coal 193
cobalt	214, 230, 235 ff., 299, 302,
338
cobaltocinium			235, 267
co-catalyst		221, 352
co-dimerization 251, 275, 285
color	17, 23 ff., 28
co-miscibility			69

compressed carbondioxide			251, 265,
281, 283 ff.
compressibility		81
computational chemistry			152
conductivity	3, 59 ff., 103 ff., 109 ff.,
112 ff., 115 ff., 121, 123, 164, 166,
262, 295, 297, 324, 331, 348, 350,
352
coordination	70
copolymerization		326 ff.

copper 210, 297, 299, 301 ff., 309 ff.,

329 ff.
corrosion	216, 294, 299, 303
co-solvent	64 ff., 117 ff., 218, 259,
262, 263 f., 270, 304, 336 ff., 339,
342
Coulombic attraction				45 ff., 53
Coulombic interaction				51, 95, 98,
158
cracking	208 ff.
crown ether		73
crystallization		164
crystal structure 75
cyclic voltammetry			104, 296 ff.,
306 ff., 309 ff., 313
cyclization reaction			175, 178 ff., 194,
196 f., 203 ff., 328
cycloaddition		35, 100
cyclodehydration			196, 198
cyclodimerization			251
cyclovoltammetry			166

d

deactivation 220, 230, 235, 243, 264, 286, 338

Index 359

dealkylation		193, 223
dealkylation reaction					175
debromination				225
decomposition				261
decomposition temperature 44
dehydrogenase				342
denaturation			339
density	3, 18, 49, 52, 56 ff., 60 ff.,
65 ff., 81, 112 ff., 115 ff., 164, 174,
272
Density Functional Theory (DFT)
153 ff.
deoxochlorination 290
detergent	320
deuteration		128, 191, 226
diacetylation			205
dialkylammonium					96 ff.
– thiocyanate				97
dialkylimidazolium					5, 30, 269, 272
– chloroaluminate					272
1,3-dialkylimidazolium 189, 261
diastereoselectivity					187
dibutylammonium					324
– chloride			324
dielectric constant					76, 94
Diels-Alder reaction					100 ff., 181 ff.,
319
Difasol process				246, 274 ff., 278
differential scanning calorimetry
(DSC)	43

1,3-dimethylimidazolium [MMIM]

60, 62, 112, 115, 133 ff., 158 ff., 224, 261, 337, 340, 342

–bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide 60, 112

– chloride		133 ff., 160
– chloroaluminate				62, 115
– hexafluorophosphate					261
– methylsulphate				337, 340, 342
– tetrafluoroborate				224
diffusion	89, 119, 123, 160, 164, 261
diffusion coefficient				118 ff.
diffusion, mutual			162 ff.
diffusion, translational					162
digital image holography					165, 167
dimerization		89, 179, 210, 214, 217,
244 ff., 251 ff., 266, 270, 274 ff.,
278, 319 ff.
Dimersol process			245, 270 ff., 275,
319
discoloration		10, 13, 18
disposal	278
distribution of charge				45
dysprosium		195

e

electrocatalysis			331
electrochemical analysis					25
electrochemical behavior					3
electrochemical window					103 ff.,
106 ff., 294 ff., 300, 303, 305,
313, 349, 354
electrochemistry			42, 104 f., 294, 299
electrodeposition				43, 294 ff., 297 ff.,
305 ff., 309, 312, 314 ff., 350, 353
electrodissolution				315 ff.
electrolysis		294, 297
electrolyte		42, 45, 68, 70, 103, 118,
121, 324, 349 f.
electrooxidation			315
electrophilicity			222, 227, 244, 249,
266
electrophilic substitution					191
electroplating 70
electroreduction			298, 306
electrosynthesis			68
electrowinning			70
enantioselectivity				182, 230 ff., 270,
285, 287, 342, 344 ff.
enthalpy of absorption					87
enthalpy of adsorption					89
enthalpy of melting				44
enzyme	337 ff.
epoxidation		233, 319
esterase	344
esterification reaction 181, 344
ethylammonium			9, 182, 339 ff.
– nitrate		9, 182, 339 ff.
ethyldiisopropylammonium 192
– trifluoroacetate				192
ethylimidazolium				158

1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium [EMIM] 5, 10, 13 ff., 18, 25 ff., 41, 43, 46 ff., 52, 60, 62, 64 ff., 70, 77, 79, 88,

99 f., 105 ff., 111 f., 115, 117 ff.,

120 ff., 133, 143 ff., 147, 180 ff.,

188 ff., 191 ff., 198 ff., 201, 205 ff., 210, 215 ff., 224, 228, 233, 278, 285 ff., 290 ff., 298, 301, 304,

320 ff., 324, 327 ff., 332, 340, 343

– acetate 18, 60, 106, 112

–bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide 60, 99, 106, 111 f., 120, 122, 216, 285 ff., 292, 340, 343

– bromide	100
– bromoaluminate 62, 115
– chloride	10, 13 ff., 17 f., 25, 43,

47 ff., 64 ff., 70, 77, 105, 108,

117 ff., 133, 143 ff., 180 ff.,