Lesson eight

Read and translate the text.

History of thermometers

Placing a kettle full of cold water on the fire is quite an ordinary thing. This time we shall do it to carry out a simple experiment. Placing a finger into the kettle from time to time, we find that the water is gradually becoming hotter and hotter, until it boils at last. In scientific lan­guage we describe this phenomenon by saying that the tem­perature of the water is rising.

However, we need some more exact means of measuring the difference of temperature than our finger. In effect, the finger can give us neither exact information, nor nu­merical data.

As a matter of fact, the very first step in the develop­ment of heat engineering made it necessary to find a de­vice for indicating temperature and for measuring its changes. As it is well known, the thermometer is the very instrument that serves this purpose.

As early as 1602, Galileo invented an air thermometer. It consisted of a glass bulb containing air and connected to a glass tube, the latter being immersed into a coloured liquid. Galileo's air thermometer was sensitive not only to temperature changes but also to changes of atmospheric pressure.

The type of thermometer familiar to everyone at pre­sent was first put into general use as early as 1654. Making the first measuring instruments was not an easy thing at all. Needless to say, the most difficult problem of all was that of marking the degrees on the thermometer, in other words, of graduating the scale. It was decided, at last, to take two fixed points and to divide the interval between them into small equal parts or degrees. And then, in 1701, Isaak Newton, the famous English scientist, whose name is

known all over the world, constructed a scale in which the freezing point of water was taken as zero and the temperature of the human body as 12°.

Some time later the German physicist Fahren­heit proved that the temperature of boiling water was always the same at the same atmospheric pressure. It might therefore be used as a second fixed point instead of the temperature of the human body. As for the liq­uid used, it was mercury which has been mostly em­ployed since that time.

On the Fahrenheit scale the boiling point of water is taken as 212° and the freezing point as 32°, the interval being divided into 180 equal parts. The scale under consideration is indi­cated by writing the letter F after the temperature, as for example, 212°F. This scale is mainly used in English speaking countries.

On the Centigrade scale the freezing point of water is marked 0°C and the boiling point is marked 100°C, the let­ter С indicating this scale. This temperature scale is em­ployed in Russia as well as in most other countries of the world.

Exercises

I. Learn the following words, groups of words. Translate the sentences.

1. body — тело. It is very important to know the quan­tity of energy present in a body.

2. to boil — кипеть. We boil water to produce steam.

3. boiling point — точка кипения. The boiling point of water depends on atmospheric pressure.

4. degree — градус; степень. Steel melts at 1300 de­grees.

5. data — данные. These data were used in research work.

6. difference — разность, разница. What is the differ­ence between potential and kinetic energy?

7. freezing point — точка замерзания. What is the freez­ing point of water?

8. to indicate — показывать, указывать. The capacity of the generator is indicated in the instruction.

9. the latter — последний из упомянутых. Coal and ura­nium are fuels; the latter is used in nuclear reactors.

10. liquid — жидкость. At what temperature does this liquid boil?

11. means — средство. A lightning conductor is a means of protecting houses from lightning.

12. mercury — ртуть. Mercury is a metal.

13. pressure — давление. What is the atmospheric pres­sure today?

14. purpose — цель, намерение. What is the purpose of this laboratory work?

15. to put into use — вводить в действие, запускать. A new reactor was put into use.

16. to rise — подниматься, возрастать. When the body is heated its temperature rises.

II. Translate the following groups of words.

high pressure, temperature difference, freezing point of water, scientific data, to indicate degrees, useful means

указывать давление, точка кипения, последний из упомянутых, ввести станцию в действие, кипятить воду, жидкое топливо

III. Fill in the blanks with suitable words and word combinations given below.

1. A thermometer is employed for ... temperature and for ... its changes. 2. The glass tube was immersed into a ... liquid. 3. As early as 1602 Galileo invented an ... . 4. The ... scale is employed in Russia. 5. ... looks like a yellow stone. 6. The Fahrenheit scale is mainly used in ... . 7. Galileo's air thermometer was sensitive to ... . 8. The scientists worked out the plan of their ... research.

coloured, Centigrade, amber, measuring, English speak­ing countries, air thermometer, indicating, changes of atmospheric pressure, scientific

IV. 1) For the verbs in (a) find suitable nouns in (b).

a).1. to carry out; 2. to put into; 3. to contribute to; 4. to solve; 5. to deliver; 6. to take part in; 7. to go

b) 1. research; 2. a problem; 3. on foot; 4. an experi­ment; 5. operation; 6. science; 7. a lecture

2) For the nouns in (a) find suitable attributes in (b).

a) 1. famous; 2. boiling; 3. glass; 4. cold; 5. scientif­ic; 6. electrical; 7. mercury

b) 1. water; 2. problem; 3. thermometer; 4. device; 5. bulb; 6. scientist; 7. point

V. 1) Translate the following word combinations.

temperature scale, lightning conductor, freezing point, human body, German speaking countries, measuring in­strument, temperature difference, boiling point, atmospher­ic pressure, numerical data, mercury thermometer, elec­trical device

2) Use these word combinations in sentences of your own.

VI. Give synonyms for the following words.

to use, big, learned man, owing to, instrument, various

VII. Translate the following sentences paying special attention to the words in bold type.

1. You are the only engineer who speaks both English and German. 2. This is the only book by I.S. Turgenev that I haven't read. 3. All countries should use nuclear power for peaceful purposes only. 4. This phenomenon was studied first by Sokolov and then by Novikov. 5. Novikov's re­sult was certainly better than that of his friend. 6. Ga­lileo constructed an air thermometer, some years later a French scientist constructed another one, in which water was used instead of air. 7. Both M.V. Lomonosov and G. W. Rikhman studied atmospheric electricity, the latter being Lomonosov's friend. 8. There are 26 letters in the English language. 9. The last letter of the English alphabet is "z". 10. Some students work and study at the same time. 11. This engineer carried on some experiments on the properties of semiconductors.

VIII. Find the wrong statements and correct them.

1. We can do without the thermometer when we need exact data on the temperature of the body. 2. The thermom­eter is the very instrument for protecting buildings from thunderstorms. 3. As early as 1602 Galileo invented the Centigrade scale. 4. An air thermometer consisted of a metal bulb containing mercury and connected to a glass tube. 5. The glass tube in the air thermometer was immersed into water. 6. Water is the very liquid that is used in ther­mometers. 7. The Fahrenheit scale is widely employed all over the world. 8. Water temperature falls when a kettle is put on the fire. 9. Mercury is not used in thermometers at present.

IX. Answer the following questions.

1. What is this text about? 2. What do you do if you want to boil water? 3. What is the temperature of boil­ing water? 4. What instrument is used for measuring temperature? 5. What did Galileo invent? 6. What do you know about the air thermometer? 7. What is the difference between the Fahrenheit and the Centigrade scales? 8. What instrument measures the temperature of hot metals? 9. What is the difference between the mercury thermometer and the pyrometer? 10. When does water freeze?

X. Make up the annotation of the text and retell it.