- •Published, April, 1939.
- •Introduction
- •Introduction
- •Introduction
- •Introduction
- •Introduction 78-82
- •Introduction 131-135
- •Introduction 297-298
- •Introduction 400-401
- •Introduction 510-511
- •List of maps
- •Introduction to the historical study of the white race
- •Statement of aims and proposals
- •Theory and principles of the concept race
- •Materials and techniques of osteology**
- •Pleistocene white men
- •Pleistocene climate
- •Sapiens men of the middle pleistocene
- •The neanderthaloid hybrids of palestine
- •Upper palaeolithic man in europe,
- •Fig. 2. Neanderthal Man. Fig. 3. Cro-Magnon Man.
- •Aurignacian man in east africa
- •The magdalenians
- •Upper palaeolithic man in china
- •Summary and conclusions
- •Fig. 12. Fjelkinge, Skane, Sweden. Neolithic.
- •Mesolithic man in africa
- •The natufians of palestine
- •The midden-d wellers of the tagus
- •Mesolithic man in france
- •The ofnet head burials
- •Mesolithic man in the crimea
- •Palaeolithic survivals in the northwest
- •Clarke, j. G. D., op. Cit., pp. 133-136.
- •38 Fiirst, Carl m., fkva, vol. 20, 1925, pp. 274-293.
- •Aichel, Otto, Der deutsche Mensch. The specimens referred to are b 5, ks 11032, ks 11254b, b 38, b 34, b 37, b 10.
- •Clarke, j. G. D., op. Citpp. 133-136.
- •Summary and conclusions
- •The neolithic invasions
- •(1) Introduction
- •1 Childe, V. Gordon, The Dawn of European Civilization; The Most Ancient East; The Danube in Prehistory; New Light on the Most Ancient East; Man Makes Himself.
- •And chronology '
- •The neolithic and the mediterranean race
- •Vault medium to thin, muscular relief on vault as a rule slight.
- •Iran and iraq
- •Vallois, h. V., “Notes sur les Tfctes Osseuses,” in Contencau, g., and Ghirsh- man, a., Fouilles de Tepe Giyan.
- •Jordan, j., apaw, Jh. 1932, #2.
- •Keith, Sir Arthur, “Report on the Human Remains, Ur Excavations,” vol. 1: in Hall, h. R. H„ and Woolley, c. L., Al 'Ubaid,
- •10 Frankfort, h., “Oriental Institute Discoveries in Iraq, 1933-34,” Fourth Preliminary Report, coic #19, 1935,
- •Civilized men in egypt
- •11 Morant, g. M., Biometrika, 1925, p. 4.
- •12 This summary of climatic changes in Egypt is based on Childe, V. G., New Light
- •18 Childe, op. Cit.Y p. 35. 14 Leakey, l. S. B., Stone Age Africa, pp. 177-178.
- •Brunton, Guy, Antiquity, vol. 3, #12, Dec., 1929, pp. 456-457.
- •Menghin, o., Lecture at Harvard University, April 6, 1937.
- •Childe, V. G., op. Cit.Y p. 64.
- •Derry, Douglas, sawv, Jahrgang, 1932, #1-4, pp. 60-61. 20 Ibid., p. 306.
- •Morant, g. M., Biometrika, 1927, vol. 27, pp. 293-309.
- •21 Morant, g. M., Biometrika, vol. 17, 1925, pp. 1-52.
- •Morant, op. Cit., 1925.
- •Neolithic north africa
- •(6) The neolithic in spain and portugal
- •The eastern source areas: south, central, and north
- •The danubian culture bearers
- •The corded or battle-axe people
- •The neolithic in the british isles
- •Western europe and the alpine race
- •Schlaginhaufen, o., op. Cit.
- •Schenk, a., reap, vol. 14, 1904, pp. 335-375.
- •Childe, The Danube in Prehistory, pp. 163, 174.
- •Neolithic scandinavia
- •Introduction
- •Bronze age movements and chronology
- •The bronze age in western asia
- •The minoans
- •The greeks
- •Basques, phoenicians, and etruscans
- •The bronze age in britain
- •The bronze age in central europe
- •The bronze age in the north
- •The bronze age on the eastern plains
- •The final bronze age and cremation
- •Summary and conclusions
- •Race, languages, and european peoples
- •The illyrians
- •The kelts
- •Vallois, h. V., Les Ossements Bretons de Kerne, TouUBras, et Port-Bara.
- •We know the stature of Kelts in the British Isles only from a small Irish group, and by inference from comparison with mediaeval English counterparts of Iron Age skeletons.
- •Greenwell, w., Archaeologia, vol. 60, part 1, pp. 251-312.
- •Morant, g. M., Biometrika, 1926, vol. 18, pp. 56-98.
- •The romans
- •46 Whatmouffh. J., The Foundations of Roman Italy.
- •The scythians
- •88 Browne, c. R., pria, vol. 2, ser. 3, 1899, pp. 649—654.
- •88 Whatmough is in doubt as to their linguistic affiliation. Whatmough, j., op. Cit., pp. 202-205.
- •Fig. 29. Scythians, from the Kul Oba Vase. Redrawn from Minns, e. H., Scythians and Greeks, p. 201, Fig. 94.
- •Doniti, a., Crania Scythica, mssr, ser. 3, Tomul X, Mem. 9, Bucharest, 1935.
- •The germanic peoples
- •Stoiyhwo, k., Swiatowit, vol. 6, 1905, pp. 73-80.
- •Bunak, V. V., raj, vol. 17, 1929, pp. 64-87.
- •Shetelig, h., Falk, h., and Gordon, e. V., Scandinavian Archaeology, pp. 174-175.
- •70 Hubert, h., The Rise of the Celts, pp. 50-52.
- •71 Nielsen, h. A., anoh, II Rakke, vol. 21, 1906, pp. 237-318; ibid., III Rakke, vol. 5, 1915, pp. 360-365. Reworked.
- •Retzius, g., Crania Suecica, reworked.
- •78 Schliz, a., pz, vol. 5, 1913, pp. 148-157.
- •Barras de Aragon, f. De las, msae, vol. 6, 1927, pp. 141-186.
- •78 Hauschild, m. W., zfma, vol. 25, 1925, pp. 221-242.
- •79 Morant, g. M., Biometrika, vol. 18, 1926, pp. 56-98.
- •8° Reche, o., vur, vol. 4, 1929, pp. 129-158, 193-215.
- •Kendrick, t. D., and Hawkes, c. F. C., Archaeology in England and Wales, 1914-1931.
- •Morant, Biometrika, vol. 18, 1926, pp. 56-98.
- •Lambdoid flattening is a characteristic common to Neanderthal and Upper Palaeolithic man, but rare in the exclusively Mediterranean group.
- •Calculated from a number of series, involving over 120 adult males. Sources:
- •Peake, h., and Hooton, e. A., jrai, vol. 45, 1915, pp. 92-130.
- •Bryce, t. H., psas, vol. 61, 1927, pp. 301-317.
- •Ecker, a., Crania Germanica.
- •Vram, u., rdar, vol. 9, 1903, pp. 151-159.
- •06 Miiller, g., loc. Cit.
- •98 Lebzelter, V., and Thalmann, g., zfrk, vol. 1, 1935, pp. 274-288.
- •97 Hamy, e. T., Anth, vol. 4, 1893, pp. 513-534; vol. 19, 1908, pp. 47-68.
- •The slavs
- •Conclusions
- •The iron age, part II Speakers of Uralic and Altaic
- •The turks and mongols
- •I® Ibid.
- •Introduction to the study of the living
- •Materials and techniques
- •Distribution of bodily characters
- •Distribution of bodily characters
- •Distribution of bodily characters
- •2. Skin of tawny white, nose narrow,
- •Hair Flaxen
- •Gobineau, a. De, Essai sur Vinegaliti des races humaines.
- •Meyer, h., Die Insel Tenerife; Uber die Urbewohner der Canarischen Inseln.
- •46 Eickstedt, e. Von, Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der Menschheit.
- •Nordenstreng, r., Europas Mdnniskoraser och Folkslag.
- •Montandon, g., La Race, Les Races.
- •Large-headed palaeolithic survivors
- •Pure and mixed palaeolithic and mesolithic survivors of moderate head size56
- •Pure and mixed unbrachtcephalized mediterranean deriva tives
- •Brachtcephauzed mediterranean derivatives, probably mixed
- •The north
- •Introduction
- •The lapps
- •I Wiklund, k. B., gb, vol. 13, 1923, pp. 223-242.
- •7 Schreiner, a., Die Nord-Norweger; Hellemo (Tysfjord Lappen).
- •8 Gjessing, r., Die Kautokeinolappen.
- •10 Kajava, y., Beitr'dge zur Kenntnis der Rasseneigenschaften der Lappen Finnlands.
- •17 For a complete bibliography of early Lappish series, see the lists of Bryn, the two Schreiners, Geyer, Kajava, and Zolotarev.
- •Schreiner, k. E., Zur Osteologie der Lappen.
- •Gjessing, r., Die Kautokeinolappen, pp. 90-95.
- •Hatt, g., Notes on Reindeer Nomadism, maaa, vol. 6, 1919. This is one of the few points regarding the history of reindeer husbandry upon which these two authorities agree.
- •The samoyeds26
- •Scandinavia; norway
- •Iceland
- •Sweden64
- •Denmark62
- •The finno-ugrians, introduction
- •Fig. 31. Linguistic Relationships of Finno-Ugrian Speaking Peoples.
- •Racial characters of the eastern finns
- •The baltic finns: finland
- •The baltic-speaking peoples
- •Conclusions
- •The british isles
- •R£sum£ of skeletal history
- •Ireland
- •Great britain, general survey
- •Fig. 32. Composite Silhouettes of English Men and Women.
- •The british isles, summary
- •Introduction
- •Lapps and samoyeds
- •Mongoloid influences in eastern europe and in turkestan
- •Brunn survivors in scandinavia
- •Borreby survivors in the north
- •East baltics
- •Carpathian and balkan borreby-like types
- •The alpine race in germany
- •The alpine race in western and central europe
- •Aberrant alpine forms in western and central europe
- •Alpines from central, eastern, and southeastern europe
- •Asiatic alpines
- •The mediterranean race in arabia
- •Long-faced mediterraneans of the western asiatic highlands
- •Long-faced mediterraneans of the western asiatic highlands: the irano-afghan race
- •Gypsies, dark-skinned mediterraneans, and south arabian veddoids
- •The negroid periphery of the mediterranean race
- •Mediterraneans from north africa
- •Small mediterraneans of southern europe
- •Atlanto-mediterraneans from southwestern europe
- •Blue-eyed atlanto-mediterraneans
- •The mediterranean reemergence in great britain
- •The pontic mediterraneans
- •The nordic race: examples of corded predominance
- •The nordic race: examples of danubian predominance
- •The nordic race: hallstatt and keltic iron age types
- •Exotic nordics
- •Nordics altered by northwestern european upper palaeolithic mixture: I
- •Nordics altered by northwestern european upper palaeolithic mixture: II
- •Nordics altered by mixture with southwestern borreby and alpine elements
- •The principle of dinaricization
- •European dinarics: I
- •European dinarics: II
- •European dinarics: III
- •European dinarics: IV
- •Dinarics in western asia: I
- •Dinarics in western asia: II
- •Armenoid armenians
- •Dinaricized forms from arabia and central asia
- •The jews: I
- •The jews: II
- •The jews: III
- •The mediterranean world
- •Introduction
- •The mediterranean rage in arabia
- •The mediterranean world
- •7 Lawrence, Col. T. E., The Seven Pillars of Wisdom.
- •The Distribution of Iranian Languages
- •The turks as mediterraneans
- •Fig, 37. Ancient Jew.
- •North africa, introduction
- •Fig. 38. Ancient Libyan. Redrawn from
- •The tuareg
- •Eastern barbary, algeria, and tunisia
- •The iberian peninsula
- •The western mediterranean islands
- •The basques
- •The gypsies
- •Chapter XII
- •The central zone, a study in reemergence
- •Introduction
- •8 Collignon, r., msap, 1894.
- •9 Collignon, r., bsap, 1883; Anth, 1893.
- •Belgium
- •The netherlands and frisia
- •Germany
- •Switzerland and austria
- •The living slavs
- •Languages of East-Central Europe and of the Balkans
- •The magyars
- •The living slavs (Concluded)
- •Albania and the dinaric race
- •The greeks
- •Bulgaria
- •Rumania and the vlachs
- •The osmanli turks
- •Turkestan and the tajiks
- •Conclusions
- •Conclusion
- •Comments and reflections
- •The white race and the new world
- •IflnrlrH
- •Alveon (also prosthion). The most anterior point on the alveolar border of the upper jaw, on the median line between the two upper median incisors.
- •Length of the clavicle (collar bone) and that of the humerus (upper arm bone);
- •Incipiently mongoloid. A racial type which has evolved part way in a mongoloid direction, and which may have other, non-mongoloid specializations of its own, is called incipiently mongoloid.
- •List of books
- •Index of authors
- •54; Language distribution, 561, map; Jews in, 642; Neo-Danubian, ill., Plate 31, Jig. 4.
- •Map; classified, 577; racial characteristics, 578-79; ill., Plate 3, fig. 3.
- •Ill., Plate 6, Jigs. 1-5; survivors in Carpathians and Balkans, ill., Plate 8, figs. 1-6; Nordic blend, ill., Plate 34, figs.
- •61; Associated with large head size, 265, 266. See also Cephalic index, Cranial measurements.
- •Ill., Plate 36, fig. 1. See also Great Britain, Ireland, Scotland.
- •Ill., Plate 30, fig. 2.
- •85; Von Eickstedt’s, 286-88; Gzek- anowski’s system, 288-89; author’s, 289-96; schematic representation, 290, chart; geographic, 294- 95, map.
- •396; Cornishmen in France, 512, 514.
THE
MESOLITHIC PERIOD
57
and
treeless highlands, since neither their tool kit nor their general
manner of living was suited to a forest environment.
The
second cultural element was furnished by the survival of the old
Upper Palaeolithic techniques, employed by the descendants of the
reindeer hunters. The gradual growth of forest in what had
formerly been the North European tundra belt forced them to learn a
new kind of hunting and to live on the flesh of new animals, while
the warming of northern waters gave them an abundance of fish and
molluscs, focussing their attention not only on the forest but also
on the rivers and sea.
In
the north and west of Europe, where the glacier lasted the longest,
cultures of Aurignacian and Magdalenian tradition survived into the
full Mesolithic, when some of them blended in varying degrees with
the newly arrived Tardenoisian. In outlying regions, such as the
north coast of Ireland and Finnmark in Norway, flint implements of
Upper Palaeolithic inspiration may still have been made as late as
the time of Christ.
For
the purpose of simplification, therefore, the history of the
Mesolithic period in Europe may be reduced to two elements: (1) an
invasion of microlith-makers from southern regions which had been
temperate and desirable during the Late Pleistocene, but which
were now drying up and becoming less habitable than Europe; (2)
survival of the Palaeolithic people of Europe in various regions and
in varying intensity, but concentrated especially in the
northern forest belt, along the western coasts, and in the centers
where the ice had lasted longest, notably, Norway and Switzerland.
Before
gathering information which will help us in Europe, let us first see
what changes or continuities occur in Africa, with the passage into
post-Pleistocene time. In East Africa Leakey has found skeletons
associated with a microlithic culture which he calls
Elmenteitan, probably at least partly contemporary with the
post-glacial Mesolithic cultures of Europe,2 with which
he has tentatively correlated it. The series includes the skulls of
three adult males, three adult females, and one child, as well as a
number of miscellaneous long bones. The bodies which they represent
had been placed in rock niches on either side of a watercourse, and
a subsequent flood had washed most of them out and deposited them in
silt. Hence, it is impossible to associate the long bones with the
crania.
From
this series of seven skulls, it is evident that the earlier East
African Mediterranean racial types were carried over into the
post-glacial period with little or no alteration. The vaults of the
Mesolithic skulls are again comparable in size to Galley Hill and
Combe Capelle. The shape of these vaults, however, is now variable,
at least in the female group, for
Leakey,
L. S. B., Stone
Age Races of Kenya,
Chapter 6.
Mesolithic man in africa
58
THE
RACES OF EUROPE
one
of the latter skulls has a cranial index of 80. This sex distinction
in shape, may, of course, have been equally present in the
Aurignacian group, but we have no material to confirm it.
The
face continues the special evolution which had begun during the
Aurignacian; it grows both longer and broader, while the nasal
height increases at the same time.3 Both the faces and
noses of these skulls are exceptionally long, by any racial
standards. All of them have high orbits. The nose remains
leptorrhine, but the nasal skeleton is not highly arched; some of
the crania, especially one of the female specimens, show
considerable prognathism. In general, the foreheads are
sloping, the browridges and other bony markings slight to medium on
the males, while on the females the browridges are actually lacking.
One male specimen, Elmenteita A, differs from the others; the
mandible has everted gonial angles while on the cranium the temporal
crests rise high over the parietals, producing a narrow forehead,
and giving the whole head a pseudo- Eskimoid appearance.
In
the Gamble’s Cave Aurignacian series, since only males were
represented, it was impossible to tell whether or not any
extensive differences between the sexes existed. In the Elmenteitan
group, the male crania exceed the female ones considerably in
the length and breadth of the vault and in the face heights and face
breadth. Vault heights, forehead breadths, and orbital dimensions
are much the same in both, however. These East Africans, therefore,
while lacking the bony luxuriance of the Upper Palaeolithic
Europeans and North Africans, do exhibit a positive amount of sex
linkage in the characters which make them racially distinctive.
Despite
the continued residence of this long-faced racial group in East
Africa, there is still little that is negroid about most of the
skulls. The forehead, in some of the females, is a bit bulbous, but
so it is with many living Mediterraneans; some of the jaws project
forward with a considerable alveolar prognathism, but so do the
jaws of a number of early European crania.4 The nasal
index, which falls near the human minimum, is at the opposite
extreme from those of negroes. The nasal bones, present in but two
crania, are long, narrow, and hour-glass shaped; they taper upwards,
and penetrate high into the frontal bone, as with certain
anthropoid apes and the Eskimo; but the two bones are not
greatly arched and the nasal vault, in these two specimens, is low.
Thus the nasal bones possess an individual character which is
neither typically white nor negroid.
The
Elmenteitan people remained as tall as the Upper Aurignacians.
3 Nasion-menton
heights on males are 126 and 132 mm.; nasion-alveon 80 and
mm.;
nose heights 58 to 59 mm.
4 The
female skull #F 1 is the most nearly negroid of all, and in this
case a definite negro strain seems very likely.
THE
MESOLITHIC PERIOD
59
The
mean stature for six males is 178.7 cm., for three females, 152.5
cm.; thus, the sex differences are great in bodily size, as well as
in head and face diameters. The greater stature and sex
differentiation of these East Africans may have been simply the
result of evolutionary change; one cannot find a non-sapiens
species to provide these modifications, as in the case of the Upper
Palaeolithic Europeans.
Before
we leave East Africa for some time, it may be interesting for us to
note that Leakey has also found a number of skeletons associated
with a parallel culture, Wilton A., located nearby and probably not
later than Elmenteita. These Wiltonians were tall, heavy-boned men,
with large, strongly arched foreheads, and small faces, very much
like the Strand- loopers from South African shell heaps, and
ancestral Bushmen. Thus along the Lake Victoria shore line, not far
away from Elmenteita, were ancestral Bushmen, living in geographical
proximity to Mesolithic ancestral Hamites. The East African
whites lived on a racial frontier, and not in a center of white
racial differentiation. If Bushmen traits turn up now and then among
Hamites or Hamitic traits among Hottentots or Bushmen, there is
little wonder.
North
Africa was occupied, during the post-glacial Mesolithic period, by
the Middle Capsian successors of the Afalou people. These are known
through a collection of skulls from the site of Mechta el ’Arbi,
of which only nine have been studied in any detail.6 All
come from what Aram- bourg calls the Middle Capsian, which has been
correlated chronologically with the European Solutrean by Menghin,
with the Solutreo-Magdalenian by Obermaier, and with the Mesolithic
by Vaufrey.6 They are considered here rather than in the
preceding chapter since they belong with the Mesolithic in the
European sense both racially and culturally, whatever their
chronological position.
It
is impossible, unfortunately, to treat these skulls with complete
clarity. Judging by published measurements, photographs, and
drawings, we may conclude that on the whole they resemble the
earlier Afalou skulls in a general way, but that most of them are
smaller and lack the ruggedness of their predecessors, having weaker
browridges, less pronounced muscular markings, and narrower faces.
Some of them have vertical foreheads, a feature foreign to the
Afalou people. They still retain in most instances, however, a low
face and low orbits, and a range of head form reaching the limits of
the earlier series.
Probably
over fifty crania have been removed from this site by successive
expeditions, but only five have been carefully studied. See
Cole, Fay Cooper, LMB, vol. 1, 1928, pp. 167-189. Four others, of
which two only are from the Mechta site, have been dealt with, as
thoroughly as the data permitted, in the Afalou volume.
Vaufrey
denies the existence of a Middle Capsian, and says that these
skulls are Late Capsian, which he considers Mesolithic,
60
THE
RACES OF EUROPE
In
their degree of size reduction, and diminution of sex-linked bony
profusion, they may be likened to some of the Mesolithic crania from
Europe, which will be studied later in this chapter. It is quite
likely, as Cole suggests, that one of the Mechta skulls showed a
negroid tendency, while the others were subjected to mixture with
Mediterranean racial elements. The inference is that the countries
at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, from which these influences
probably seeped, were already inhabited by small Mediterraneans. On
archaeological grounds, it is unlikely that these Mediterranean
racial elements came directly from the Sahara.
Our
entire knowledge of the racial composition of the early inhabitants
of the southern Sahara is furnished by a single skeleton, unearthed
at Asselar, a military post some four hundred kilometers north of
Timbuctu, in what is now utter desert,7 but what was at
the time a fertile, well-watered plateau, drained by wide rivers,
and rich in grass and ruminant game.
The
skeleton, which had not been buried but which simply lay in the
place of death, was covered by lake-laid sands. These same sands
have yielded the bones of huge fish, in the same state of
fossilization as those of the man, and the shells of fresh-water
molluscs, which indicate that the region of Asselar was at that time
still a lake country, with running streams and a forest border, near
the southern limit of the south-Saharan grasslands, and the
northernmost extension of the tropical forest. Asselar man died
before this region had become desiccated, but his cultural
association is Mesolithic or Early Neolithic, and his chronological
age unquestionably post-glacial.
He
was a tall man, over 170 cm. in height; his limbs were long in
proportion to his trunk, and his forearms and lower legs long
when compared to the proximal segments of their extremities.
His hands were long and slim, with small carpal bones, unlike the
broad hands and thick wrists of the Afalou men farther north.
The
skull is of medium vault size, comparable to Grimaldi, Afalou #28,
and the Kenya Aurignacians. Like all of these, it is
dolichocephalic, with a cranial index of 71. The muscular markings
of the vault are slight, and the browridges weak. In facial
dimensions, Asselar is intermediate between the Grimaldi and East
African extremes. Morphologically, however, it is the most
negroid specimen of equal age yet found. The malars project
forwards, and the lower border of the orbit stands in front of the
upper, when the skull is placed in the eye-ear plane. The nose is
chamaer- rhine, and negroid in conformation.
Asselar
man was either an incompletely evolved negroid, or a negro-
*
Boule, M., and Vallois, H. V., AIPH, Mem. 9, 1932.
See
also Baiily, Ren6, RA, vol. 43, 1933, pp. 172-181.