- •Published, April, 1939.
- •Introduction
- •Introduction
- •Introduction
- •Introduction
- •Introduction 78-82
- •Introduction 131-135
- •Introduction 297-298
- •Introduction 400-401
- •Introduction 510-511
- •List of maps
- •Introduction to the historical study of the white race
- •Statement of aims and proposals
- •Theory and principles of the concept race
- •Materials and techniques of osteology**
- •Pleistocene white men
- •Pleistocene climate
- •Sapiens men of the middle pleistocene
- •The neanderthaloid hybrids of palestine
- •Upper palaeolithic man in europe,
- •Fig. 2. Neanderthal Man. Fig. 3. Cro-Magnon Man.
- •Aurignacian man in east africa
- •The magdalenians
- •Upper palaeolithic man in china
- •Summary and conclusions
- •Fig. 12. Fjelkinge, Skane, Sweden. Neolithic.
- •Mesolithic man in africa
- •The natufians of palestine
- •The midden-d wellers of the tagus
- •Mesolithic man in france
- •The ofnet head burials
- •Mesolithic man in the crimea
- •Palaeolithic survivals in the northwest
- •Clarke, j. G. D., op. Cit., pp. 133-136.
- •38 Fiirst, Carl m., fkva, vol. 20, 1925, pp. 274-293.
- •Aichel, Otto, Der deutsche Mensch. The specimens referred to are b 5, ks 11032, ks 11254b, b 38, b 34, b 37, b 10.
- •Clarke, j. G. D., op. Citpp. 133-136.
- •Summary and conclusions
- •The neolithic invasions
- •(1) Introduction
- •1 Childe, V. Gordon, The Dawn of European Civilization; The Most Ancient East; The Danube in Prehistory; New Light on the Most Ancient East; Man Makes Himself.
- •And chronology '
- •The neolithic and the mediterranean race
- •Vault medium to thin, muscular relief on vault as a rule slight.
- •Iran and iraq
- •Vallois, h. V., “Notes sur les Tfctes Osseuses,” in Contencau, g., and Ghirsh- man, a., Fouilles de Tepe Giyan.
- •Jordan, j., apaw, Jh. 1932, #2.
- •Keith, Sir Arthur, “Report on the Human Remains, Ur Excavations,” vol. 1: in Hall, h. R. H„ and Woolley, c. L., Al 'Ubaid,
- •10 Frankfort, h., “Oriental Institute Discoveries in Iraq, 1933-34,” Fourth Preliminary Report, coic #19, 1935,
- •Civilized men in egypt
- •11 Morant, g. M., Biometrika, 1925, p. 4.
- •12 This summary of climatic changes in Egypt is based on Childe, V. G., New Light
- •18 Childe, op. Cit.Y p. 35. 14 Leakey, l. S. B., Stone Age Africa, pp. 177-178.
- •Brunton, Guy, Antiquity, vol. 3, #12, Dec., 1929, pp. 456-457.
- •Menghin, o., Lecture at Harvard University, April 6, 1937.
- •Childe, V. G., op. Cit.Y p. 64.
- •Derry, Douglas, sawv, Jahrgang, 1932, #1-4, pp. 60-61. 20 Ibid., p. 306.
- •Morant, g. M., Biometrika, 1927, vol. 27, pp. 293-309.
- •21 Morant, g. M., Biometrika, vol. 17, 1925, pp. 1-52.
- •Morant, op. Cit., 1925.
- •Neolithic north africa
- •(6) The neolithic in spain and portugal
- •The eastern source areas: south, central, and north
- •The danubian culture bearers
- •The corded or battle-axe people
- •The neolithic in the british isles
- •Western europe and the alpine race
- •Schlaginhaufen, o., op. Cit.
- •Schenk, a., reap, vol. 14, 1904, pp. 335-375.
- •Childe, The Danube in Prehistory, pp. 163, 174.
- •Neolithic scandinavia
- •Introduction
- •Bronze age movements and chronology
- •The bronze age in western asia
- •The minoans
- •The greeks
- •Basques, phoenicians, and etruscans
- •The bronze age in britain
- •The bronze age in central europe
- •The bronze age in the north
- •The bronze age on the eastern plains
- •The final bronze age and cremation
- •Summary and conclusions
- •Race, languages, and european peoples
- •The illyrians
- •The kelts
- •Vallois, h. V., Les Ossements Bretons de Kerne, TouUBras, et Port-Bara.
- •We know the stature of Kelts in the British Isles only from a small Irish group, and by inference from comparison with mediaeval English counterparts of Iron Age skeletons.
- •Greenwell, w., Archaeologia, vol. 60, part 1, pp. 251-312.
- •Morant, g. M., Biometrika, 1926, vol. 18, pp. 56-98.
- •The romans
- •46 Whatmouffh. J., The Foundations of Roman Italy.
- •The scythians
- •88 Browne, c. R., pria, vol. 2, ser. 3, 1899, pp. 649—654.
- •88 Whatmough is in doubt as to their linguistic affiliation. Whatmough, j., op. Cit., pp. 202-205.
- •Fig. 29. Scythians, from the Kul Oba Vase. Redrawn from Minns, e. H., Scythians and Greeks, p. 201, Fig. 94.
- •Doniti, a., Crania Scythica, mssr, ser. 3, Tomul X, Mem. 9, Bucharest, 1935.
- •The germanic peoples
- •Stoiyhwo, k., Swiatowit, vol. 6, 1905, pp. 73-80.
- •Bunak, V. V., raj, vol. 17, 1929, pp. 64-87.
- •Shetelig, h., Falk, h., and Gordon, e. V., Scandinavian Archaeology, pp. 174-175.
- •70 Hubert, h., The Rise of the Celts, pp. 50-52.
- •71 Nielsen, h. A., anoh, II Rakke, vol. 21, 1906, pp. 237-318; ibid., III Rakke, vol. 5, 1915, pp. 360-365. Reworked.
- •Retzius, g., Crania Suecica, reworked.
- •78 Schliz, a., pz, vol. 5, 1913, pp. 148-157.
- •Barras de Aragon, f. De las, msae, vol. 6, 1927, pp. 141-186.
- •78 Hauschild, m. W., zfma, vol. 25, 1925, pp. 221-242.
- •79 Morant, g. M., Biometrika, vol. 18, 1926, pp. 56-98.
- •8° Reche, o., vur, vol. 4, 1929, pp. 129-158, 193-215.
- •Kendrick, t. D., and Hawkes, c. F. C., Archaeology in England and Wales, 1914-1931.
- •Morant, Biometrika, vol. 18, 1926, pp. 56-98.
- •Lambdoid flattening is a characteristic common to Neanderthal and Upper Palaeolithic man, but rare in the exclusively Mediterranean group.
- •Calculated from a number of series, involving over 120 adult males. Sources:
- •Peake, h., and Hooton, e. A., jrai, vol. 45, 1915, pp. 92-130.
- •Bryce, t. H., psas, vol. 61, 1927, pp. 301-317.
- •Ecker, a., Crania Germanica.
- •Vram, u., rdar, vol. 9, 1903, pp. 151-159.
- •06 Miiller, g., loc. Cit.
- •98 Lebzelter, V., and Thalmann, g., zfrk, vol. 1, 1935, pp. 274-288.
- •97 Hamy, e. T., Anth, vol. 4, 1893, pp. 513-534; vol. 19, 1908, pp. 47-68.
- •The slavs
- •Conclusions
- •The iron age, part II Speakers of Uralic and Altaic
- •The turks and mongols
- •I® Ibid.
- •Introduction to the study of the living
- •Materials and techniques
- •Distribution of bodily characters
- •Distribution of bodily characters
- •Distribution of bodily characters
- •2. Skin of tawny white, nose narrow,
- •Hair Flaxen
- •Gobineau, a. De, Essai sur Vinegaliti des races humaines.
- •Meyer, h., Die Insel Tenerife; Uber die Urbewohner der Canarischen Inseln.
- •46 Eickstedt, e. Von, Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der Menschheit.
- •Nordenstreng, r., Europas Mdnniskoraser och Folkslag.
- •Montandon, g., La Race, Les Races.
- •Large-headed palaeolithic survivors
- •Pure and mixed palaeolithic and mesolithic survivors of moderate head size56
- •Pure and mixed unbrachtcephalized mediterranean deriva tives
- •Brachtcephauzed mediterranean derivatives, probably mixed
- •The north
- •Introduction
- •The lapps
- •I Wiklund, k. B., gb, vol. 13, 1923, pp. 223-242.
- •7 Schreiner, a., Die Nord-Norweger; Hellemo (Tysfjord Lappen).
- •8 Gjessing, r., Die Kautokeinolappen.
- •10 Kajava, y., Beitr'dge zur Kenntnis der Rasseneigenschaften der Lappen Finnlands.
- •17 For a complete bibliography of early Lappish series, see the lists of Bryn, the two Schreiners, Geyer, Kajava, and Zolotarev.
- •Schreiner, k. E., Zur Osteologie der Lappen.
- •Gjessing, r., Die Kautokeinolappen, pp. 90-95.
- •Hatt, g., Notes on Reindeer Nomadism, maaa, vol. 6, 1919. This is one of the few points regarding the history of reindeer husbandry upon which these two authorities agree.
- •The samoyeds26
- •Scandinavia; norway
- •Iceland
- •Sweden64
- •Denmark62
- •The finno-ugrians, introduction
- •Fig. 31. Linguistic Relationships of Finno-Ugrian Speaking Peoples.
- •Racial characters of the eastern finns
- •The baltic finns: finland
- •The baltic-speaking peoples
- •Conclusions
- •The british isles
- •R£sum£ of skeletal history
- •Ireland
- •Great britain, general survey
- •Fig. 32. Composite Silhouettes of English Men and Women.
- •The british isles, summary
- •Introduction
- •Lapps and samoyeds
- •Mongoloid influences in eastern europe and in turkestan
- •Brunn survivors in scandinavia
- •Borreby survivors in the north
- •East baltics
- •Carpathian and balkan borreby-like types
- •The alpine race in germany
- •The alpine race in western and central europe
- •Aberrant alpine forms in western and central europe
- •Alpines from central, eastern, and southeastern europe
- •Asiatic alpines
- •The mediterranean race in arabia
- •Long-faced mediterraneans of the western asiatic highlands
- •Long-faced mediterraneans of the western asiatic highlands: the irano-afghan race
- •Gypsies, dark-skinned mediterraneans, and south arabian veddoids
- •The negroid periphery of the mediterranean race
- •Mediterraneans from north africa
- •Small mediterraneans of southern europe
- •Atlanto-mediterraneans from southwestern europe
- •Blue-eyed atlanto-mediterraneans
- •The mediterranean reemergence in great britain
- •The pontic mediterraneans
- •The nordic race: examples of corded predominance
- •The nordic race: examples of danubian predominance
- •The nordic race: hallstatt and keltic iron age types
- •Exotic nordics
- •Nordics altered by northwestern european upper palaeolithic mixture: I
- •Nordics altered by northwestern european upper palaeolithic mixture: II
- •Nordics altered by mixture with southwestern borreby and alpine elements
- •The principle of dinaricization
- •European dinarics: I
- •European dinarics: II
- •European dinarics: III
- •European dinarics: IV
- •Dinarics in western asia: I
- •Dinarics in western asia: II
- •Armenoid armenians
- •Dinaricized forms from arabia and central asia
- •The jews: I
- •The jews: II
- •The jews: III
- •The mediterranean world
- •Introduction
- •The mediterranean rage in arabia
- •The mediterranean world
- •7 Lawrence, Col. T. E., The Seven Pillars of Wisdom.
- •The Distribution of Iranian Languages
- •The turks as mediterraneans
- •Fig, 37. Ancient Jew.
- •North africa, introduction
- •Fig. 38. Ancient Libyan. Redrawn from
- •The tuareg
- •Eastern barbary, algeria, and tunisia
- •The iberian peninsula
- •The western mediterranean islands
- •The basques
- •The gypsies
- •Chapter XII
- •The central zone, a study in reemergence
- •Introduction
- •8 Collignon, r., msap, 1894.
- •9 Collignon, r., bsap, 1883; Anth, 1893.
- •Belgium
- •The netherlands and frisia
- •Germany
- •Switzerland and austria
- •The living slavs
- •Languages of East-Central Europe and of the Balkans
- •The magyars
- •The living slavs (Concluded)
- •Albania and the dinaric race
- •The greeks
- •Bulgaria
- •Rumania and the vlachs
- •The osmanli turks
- •Turkestan and the tajiks
- •Conclusions
- •Conclusion
- •Comments and reflections
- •The white race and the new world
- •IflnrlrH
- •Alveon (also prosthion). The most anterior point on the alveolar border of the upper jaw, on the median line between the two upper median incisors.
- •Length of the clavicle (collar bone) and that of the humerus (upper arm bone);
- •Incipiently mongoloid. A racial type which has evolved part way in a mongoloid direction, and which may have other, non-mongoloid specializations of its own, is called incipiently mongoloid.
- •List of books
- •Index of authors
- •54; Language distribution, 561, map; Jews in, 642; Neo-Danubian, ill., Plate 31, Jig. 4.
- •Map; classified, 577; racial characteristics, 578-79; ill., Plate 3, fig. 3.
- •Ill., Plate 6, Jigs. 1-5; survivors in Carpathians and Balkans, ill., Plate 8, figs. 1-6; Nordic blend, ill., Plate 34, figs.
- •61; Associated with large head size, 265, 266. See also Cephalic index, Cranial measurements.
- •Ill., Plate 36, fig. 1. See also Great Britain, Ireland, Scotland.
- •Ill., Plate 30, fig. 2.
- •85; Von Eickstedt’s, 286-88; Gzek- anowski’s system, 288-89; author’s, 289-96; schematic representation, 290, chart; geographic, 294- 95, map.
- •396; Cornishmen in France, 512, 514.
120
THE
RACES OF EUROPE
and
wider noses. Furthermore, the soft-parts of living representatives
of this type are distinctly un-Mediterranean.
The
true answer to the question, “What is the origin of the western
European Alpines?” cannot yet be given. But we may be reasonably
certain that they are older than the Neolithic, that they may owe
part, at least, of their reduced size of vault and face to mixture
with Mediterraneans, and that their round headedness possessed
a strong genetic survival value. At the moment, the theory of
an Upper Palaeolithic survival, somewhat reduced in head and face
size, seems the most reasonable.
Let
us next move to the center of the second area of maximum Mesolithic
survival—southern Scandinavia. Here the Neolithic cultures and
techniques were late in arrival, and survived long enough to attain
a considerable complexity, flourishing long after most of the rest
of Europe was making common use of metal. The old Erteb^lle country
of Denmark and southwestern Sweden became the seat of a dense
population of successful farmers and cattle breeders, partly
derived from the old fishing and hunting stock, and partly from new
immigrants who brought with them new ways of living. This part of
Scandinavia, in the Sub-Boreal period, which followed the Litorina,
and which witnessed the development of the Neolithic, was
eminently suited to agriculture and cattle raising, for the climate
was drier than at present, and four Fahrenheit degrees warmer in
mean annual temperature.84
Neolithic
impulses, when they eventually reached Scandinavia, probably no
earlier than 2500 B.C.,
came
into this region from more than one direction. It is possible that
Danubian influences, transferred through South German mediums, were
felt by the Ertebjzflle moor-dwellers at the beginning, and also
that Neolithic cultural movements came directly to Scandinavia from
South Russia. However, the first movement which can be traced with
certainty was that of the Megalithic immigrants. These came by sea
from the south and west, probably for the most part from the British
Isles, although some may have come from Brittany as well. They
brought with them not only the habit of erecting impressive burial
monuments, but also agriculture and animal husbandry, which
they may have been the first to introduce as a basic source of food
supply, although Neolithic techniques may have come from the east
and south before them.
The
Megalithic invaders found a strong, settled population of fishermen
and hunters, located mostly on the coasts, who apparently did not
prevent them from establishing their farms and trading stations. The
archaeo-
Shetelig,
Falk, and Gordon, Scandinavian
Archaeology,
p. 53. Much of this introductory material is based on their
book.
Neolithic scandinavia
THE
NEOLITHIC INVASIONS
121
logical
record furthermore makes it certain that the aborigines were neither
driven out nor destroyed, but survived to form an important element
in the eventual Danish population.
The
forms of the abundant megalithic monuments, in combination with
weapon types, provide a scale for Neolithic chronology. After a
tombless period characterized by round-poled axes, dolmens were
built first, followed by passage graves, under specific influence
from Brittany via Holland; and by Long Barrows brought, as a trait,
from England by sea.
In
the later part of the dolmen period and the beginning of the passage
grave epoch, a new group invaded Scandinavia from the east and
southeast, probably initially attracted by the rich supply of
amber in Jutland. These were the so-called Battle-Axe people, who
were simply our old friends the Corded people under their alternate
name. Their route lay from Holstein up through Schleswig to Jutland,
and only later did they reach the Danish archipelago, and Sweden.
Having come from Germany, it is doubtful if they represented a pure
Corded racial strain; this became less pure through blending with
their predecessors in Scandinavia, the Megalithic and Kitchen-Midden
peoples. The burial form of the resultant amalgam was the stone
cist, a Megalithic-Corded compromise, with the corridor tombs and
Battle-Axe single graves as prototypes.
During
the entire Neolithic, almost all of Norway, as well as central and
northern Sweden, remained in a food-gathering stage of culture,
although Neolithic axes and other objects were traded to them from
the south. There can be little doubt that ta a large extent the
northern hunters were direct descendants of Mesolithic, and hence of
Late Palaeolithic, man. Many traits of their so-called Arctic
culture have survived until recent times.
Without
the knowledge of Neolithic movements and continuities provided
by the careful work of the Scandinavian archaeologists, and without
a previous study of the Neolithic racial situation in other parts of
Europe, it would be difficult to interpret the human remains from
the Danish and Swedish sites, since this is racially the most
complex and most mixed section of the continent. The concept of
Scandinavia as the home of a pure Nordic race or of any other single
group during the Neolithic is a completely false one.
The
total of Neolithic skulls from Scandinavia is well over two
hundred; 86 of these nearly three-fourths come from
Denmark. Only one repre
85 Principal
sources:
Fiirst,
C. M., Zur
Kraniologie der Schwedischen Steinzeit.
Nielsen,
H. A., ANOH, 1905, 1911, 1915.
Retzius,
A., Crania
Suecica.
122
THE
RACES OF EUROPE
sents
Norway, and this is a heavy-boned specimen, with strong browridges,
a mesocephalic vault, mesorrhine nose, and low orbits; apparently a
partial or complete Mesolithic survival.
In
both the Swedish and Danish series, two main, mutually contrasting
types are found. One is a very long, quite narrow, cranium of
moderate height; with projecting occiput, parallel side walls,
moderate browridges, a moderately sloping forehead, which is usually
quite broad; a moderate upper face height coupled with a narrow
breadth; mesoconch orbits of square form sloping downward at the
outer corners; and a mesorrhine or leptorrhine nasal aperture. This
type of skull, which comprises some thirty-nine per cent of the
Swedish series, and five per cent of the Danish, was early
recognized by Fiirst as a counterpart of the British Long Barrow
race, which occurs more frequently in Britain in unmixed form. In
the Danish Long Barrow tombs of purely British type, the skull form
is also identically British.86 Most of the people of
this type in Neolithic Scandinavia must have come by the western sea
route around Britain; some, however, may have arrived overland from
southern Russia in pre-Corded times.
This
Megalithic form is not, however, the only long-headed type
discernible among Scandinavian Neolithic long-heads; individual
crania of Corded type with longer faces and higher vaults are not
uncommon. A mean stature of 172 cm. for the long-headed skeletons 87
shows that the racial types involved were tall, taller than either
the Long Barrow mean from England or that of the Corded group from
Silesia and Bohemia. But this excess of stature cannot be taken to
indicate a strong admixture in this type of Palaeolithic long heads,
for the dimensions of the vault are not comparable, and the face is
very narrow—as with both Megalithic and Corded crania elsewhere.
Unfortunately,
it is impossible to follow the progress of these long heads through
the different types and stages of Neolithic cultural development.
Dolmen burials and those in corridor tombs have been classed
together in Denmark—and may be contrasted with profit only with
the skeletons from the later cist graves. In both groups there has
been much mixture between long- and round-headed forms; a mean
cranial index of 77 in each case indicates an intermediate
condition. Since the brachycephalic element in each is probably the
same, and apparently present in equal quantities, we may compare the
two groups with some validity. The cist- grave crania are higher
vaulted, longer and generally larger faced, and longer nosed than
the Megalithic ones. In all diverging characters, the cist grave
skulls differ from their Megalithic predecessors in a Corded di
86 Five
crania from Danish Long Barrows.
87 Pearson’s
formula, M ~ 172.4 cm. Nielsen’s figure is 173.4 cm., based on Ma-
nouvrier’s tables.
THE
NEOLITHIC INVASIONS
123
rection.
Therefore, we are led to believe that a true Corded racial element
did play a perceptible part in the formation of the Neolithic Danish
population, and did not appear merely as sporadic individual
specimens.
In
Sweden, out of twenty-four male crania found in passage graves, only
one was brachycephalic; for the most part a pure Long Barrow type is
represented.88 In the later cist graves, a much stronger
brachycephalic element had entered. On the whole, the Swedish
material runs more strongly to both extremes than that from Denmark
(see Appendix I, cols. 18, 19); forty-nine per cent of the Swedish
skulls are considered mixtures between the long- and
round-headed forms; while in Denmark these total eighty-seven per
cent. In Sweden, the round heads are concentrated in Skane, in the
southwestern part of the country; in Denmark, they are commonest on
the islands of Zealand, Laaland, and Falster. The longheads
were particularly prevalent in central Sweden and in Jutland and the
islands of Funen and Langeland. Brachycephaly, therefore, is
centered around the Copenhagen region, and particularly the islands,
which would naturally permit the greatest survival of people who
derived their sustenance from the sea.
From
every standpoint it seems indicated that this brachycephalic
element in the population is associated with the
preagricultural midden dwellers. Yet we know from our scanty list of
Mesolithic remains that the basic element of that time was probably
a long-headed, Brunn-like Upper Palaeolithic European survival.
Many skulls of large, square-jawed brachycephalic type appeared
toward the end of the Mesolithic or beginning of the Neolithic
in Denmark and northern Germany. Most of them have been assigned,
largely through caution, to the Neolithic rather than to the
preceding food-gathering period. Such are the skulls from Kiel, from
Plau, from Spandau, and numerous other sites.89
Whatever
their date, they resemble the brachycephalic crania of undisputed
Neolithic age very closely. The latter, in turn, are sufficiently
numerous for accurate racial evaluation. The Danish and Swedish
brachycephalic people were tall, with a mean of 168.2 cm.,90
and heavy boned. Their skulls are large, high vaulted, and with
lengths greater than those common to most crania of equal index. The
browridges are usually heavy, the foreheads often sloping, the
lambdoid region is flattened often, the occipital region more
rarely. The face is short and wide; the orbits square and moderately
low; the nasal skeleton often prominent; the nasal index
Fiirst,
op.
cit.
Retzius,
op.
cit.
Aichel,
O,, Der
deutsche Mensch.
Clarke,
J. G., The
Mesolithic Age in Northern Europe.
Kossinna,
Gustav, Ursprung
und Verbreitung der Germanen,
MannusB, #6a, 1928,
Pearson’s
formula, 170.7 cm. by Manouvrier’s tables*
124
THE
RACES OF EUROPE
usually
leptorrhine or mesorrhine; the lower jaw heavy, wide, and angular.
There seems little reason to dispute the conclusion that this type
of skull is closely related to that found at Ofnet, Bavaria, in the
Mesolithic; and that it is at least strikingly similar to the Upper
Palaeolithic brachycephals from Afalou bou Rummel in Algeria,
to which the Ofnet crania have already been compared. Individual
Scandinavian crania can be matched with others from Afalou.
Brachycephalic
crania are not infrequent in the Neolithic graves of central and
southern Germany, in which we have already found them mixed with
long-headed varieties. The same is also true of Poland. In the
southwest, the Danish brachycephalic type, commonly given the name
of the site Borreby, is found as far from its apparent center as
Belgium, where the three crania of Sclaigneux are probably marginal
representatives.91 In the absence of further knowledge,
one cannot definitely state that this brachycephalic type was the
principal one of the Erteb0lle kitchen-midden period, or that it was
not. But it seems most reasonable to suppose that it was native to
southern Germany during most of the Mesolithic, with extensions
westward and eastward; and that at some time during the Late
Mesolithic or initial Neolithic it filtered into northern Germany
and the coastal zone from Belgium to Denmark and southern Sweden
where it survived the Megalithic and Corded invasions, and where it
is still present today.
It
is interesting that in the whole stretch of the European continent
in which Neolithic invaders blended culturally with the previous
Mesolithic population, from southern France to Sweden, some form of
brachycephal should appear. This northern Borreby type is different
from the Alpine of France, Switzerland, and Belgium in a number of
ways. The vaults are higher, the orbits somewhat lower, the faces
larger, the jaws heavier. Whereas the French crania are usually
globular, many of the Borreby ones resemble modern planoccipital
types in angularity of vault form. The Borreby people, while shorter
than their longer-headed companions, were quite tall; the Alpines,
frequently taller than theirs, were shorter than the northern
brachycephals. One is tempted to interpret the difference
partly in terms of the types with which each mixed; a Megalithic and
Corded mixture with an Upper Palaeolithic brachycephalic type would
have a quite different result from that of a Danubian or Spanish
small Mediterranean strain with the latter. In either case, we still
may ask: What became of the long-headed Palaeolithic element which
accompanied the brachycephals both in western Europe and northern
Africa?
But
this problem is far from solution; we have established the presence
Virchow,
R., AFA, vol. 6, 1873, pp. 85-118. In Virchow’s article skull #3
is the subject of a misprint. The length should read 175 mm., the
breadth 151 mm.
THE
NEOLITHIC INVASIONS
125
of
brachycephals in the earliest Neolithic horizons in various parts of
western Europe, in each case in connection with a strong Mesolithic
cultural survival. We must await further evidence from the
mysterious Mesolithic for an answer.
(13)
NEOLITHIC INHABITANTS OF THE NORTHERN FORESTS
From
the Baltic to the Urals stretches a belt of forests and swamps,
crossed by many rivers, which long formed a shelter for primitive
hunters and fishers, while the steppes to the south were overrun by
successive groups of farmers and pastoral nomads from the earliest
Neolithic until modern historical times. This northern cultural
backwater forms environmentally a westward extension of the
vast Siberian expanse of tundra and taiga; since early pre-Slavic
days it has been the home of various tribes of Finns, some of whom
once led, on European soil, a life much like that of the Siberian
Ostiaks and Voguls of recent centuries.
In
the Neolithic time-expanse, in the general European sense, the
inhabitants of these forests lived by hunting and
stream-fishing, in a manner reminiscent of their Maglemose
predecessors. A few cultural innovations filtered northward from the
agricultural lands, and among these was pottery, decorated by
comb-impressions and other characteristic marks which render it easy
to identify. Within the last few years there has been much
discussion about this combed pottery, for it has been found in a
more or less continuous band from Finland across Russia into
Siberia, and then again at various points across the northern forest
region of North America to the Atlantic. A school is rapidly forming
which believes that this type is circumpolar and boreal,
non-agricultural, and associated with the hunting and fishing
peoples of the entire north. An impressive roster of archaeological
authorities, including Kossina, Ailio, and Childe, believes that in
Europe it was associated with an early Finno-Ugrian forest people,
the direct ancestors of the various Finnish groups of today.92
The
skeletal evidence from the Neolithic of this forest belt, while not
abundant, is sufficient to show that racial uniformity did not
characterize this widespread cultural province. Fifteen crania from
the Neolithic of the shores of Lake Ladoga 93 are almost
equally divided into two types; a normal South Russian
dolichocephal, presumably of the extreme longheaded type, with
narrow face and nose; and a mesocephal which does indeed have a
Finnish appearance in the modern sense. Skulls of the latter type
are characterized by low orbits, short, broad noses, and wide faces,
which as individual examples exceed the accompanying brain case in
width. This face and head form bears a certain Cr6-Magnon-like
92
Childe, V. G., “Adaptation to the Postglacial forest on the North
Eurasiatic Plain,” in McCurdy, G. G., Early
Man.
88
Bogdanov, A. P., 1B82; from Sailer, K., AAnz,
1925.
126
THE
RACES OF EUROPE
implication,
and may indeed indicate descent from some eastern Upper Palaeolithic
form as yet undiscovered.
At
Salis Roje, in Livonia on the Gulf of Riga, another collection of
thirty-one Neolithic crania is even more varied.94 This
includes not only the types present at Lake Ladoga, but also a
short-statured, brachycephalic form, with a long face, slight
prognathism, high orbits, and a broad nose. Morphologically, there
is said to be a mongoloid appearance to these crania. This adds,
therefore, a third element to the northern forest population
during the Neolithic.
Farther
to the east, at Volosovo on the bank of the Oka River, a sub-
brachycephalic skull from the same cultural horizon would apparently
fit into the Finn-like Ladogan category.95 Across the
Urals in Siberia, the essentially European character of the
Comb-Pottery people comes gradually to an end. A female skull
from Bazaiha 96 in the Krasnoyarsk district resembles the
Salis Roje brachycephalic type, but has a narrow, prominent nose.
This specimen has been likened to a form typical of modern Turko-
Tartar women. Farther to the east, one encounters a hyperbrachyce-
phalic, fully mongoloid skull from Kokui on the Transbaikal
railroad,97 and beyond that the extensive and carefully
studied Neolithic series from Lake Baikal, the main type of which
Debetz finds identical with the crania of modern Tungus.98
In
summarizing this material, we shall not dispute the opinion of the
archaeologists who have concerned themselves with this special field
that the participants in the comb-ceramic hunting and fishing
culture of northern Russia and the forests to either side were the
cultural ancestors of some, at least, of the modern
Finno-Ugrian-speaking peoples. But the racial aspect of the problem
is far from simple; at least three elements were present; an
extremely long-headed Mediterranean form with southern connections;
a Cr6-Magnon-like broad-faced, low-orbitted mesocephal, filling most
closely the requirements of an ideal modern Finnish type; and a
small-statured brachycephal with a long face and high orbits, which
in some instances is at least partly mongoloid. As will be seen
later, the sub- brachycephalic element in the Danubian population
was probably related to these non-Mediterranean forest types.
(14)
CONCLUSIONS
The
survey of the white race during Neolithic times, which has required
the wholesale examination of a large number of skeletal remains and
their
"
Virchow, R, ZFE, vol. 9, 1877, p. 412. Also, Sailer, K*> AAnz,
1925.
96
Pavlov, A., RAJ, vol. 16, 1927, p. 56. See also Ouvarov, A. S.,
Archaeologie
de la Russie.
wDus,
AF, vol. 1, 1923, pp. 72-78. Also, Sailer, K., AAnz, 1925.
Dus,
ibid.
Sailer, ibid. 98
Debetz, G., RAJ, vol. 19, 1930, pp. 7-50.
THE
NEOLITHIC INVASIONS
127
placing
in space, time, and cultural settings, has led to a number of
definite conclusions, some of which are as final as anything can be
in the present state of physical anthropology, and others which are
admittedly both tentative and tenuous.
The
Neolithic manner of living differs radically from that of
Palaeolithic and Mesolithic man, since it involves the production of
food by agriculture and animal husbandry. The plants and animals
themselves are not of European origin, but are native for the most
part to western Asia. Neolithic civilization had probably begun
in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and possibly the Indus Valley by 5000
b.c.
The
people who discovered or invented this control over nature
probably belonged to the purely sapiens
branch
of the white race in the larger sense, including a group of related
dolicho- or mesocephalic types which did not form part of the more
specialized European and North African Upper Palaeolithic
group, although they were closely related to such generalized forms
as Galley Hill and Combe Capelle.
Members
of this larger racial group invaded Europe from several quarters,
starting in the latter part of the fourth millennium b.c.
Their
principal avenues of approach were from North Africa through Spain,
from the Mediterranean to western Europe by sea, across the South
Russian plains, and up the Danube Valley. The Danubian migration may
have been fed by streams from north of the Black Sea, from Anatolia
by way of the Bosporus, from southern Anatolia and points farther
south and east by way of Greece, or by some combination of these
three. The exact source or sources of the Danubian migration remain
to be determined. Another avenue was to Greece and Italy from the
east by sea.
The
invaders may be divided into a number of sub-types. First, there is
a basic cleavage into a short-statured, sexually undifferentiated,
relatively small-headed and frequently mesocephalic variety which
fits most closely the specifications of the Mediterranean race in
the more commonly used sense of that term. There were three groups
of Neolithic culture bearers who belonged principally if not
entirely fo this type: the Danubians; the farmers and swineherds who
moved westward along the fertile coastal regions of North Africa,
and over into Spain and thence northward to France and Switzerland;
and the sea-borne settlers of Italy, and probably also of Greece.
The Danubians are distinguished by a particularly high cranial vault
and high nasal index; the western branch by a lower vault and
narrower nose. To the latter class belonged also the ancient
Egyptians.
The
other half of the Neolithic Mediterranean race is noted for tall
stature and a more extremely dolichocephalic skull form. This
variety was found in East Africa; it was also common in early
Mesopotamia and
128
THE
RACES OF EUROPE
Iran,
while the Egyptians belonged more nearly to the smaller
Mediterranean variety. This tall, longer-headed half of the
race is longer faced, narrower nosed, and less delicate in bony
structure than the other. It also seems to fall closer to such
possible prototypes as Galley Hill and Combe Capelle from the
Palaeolithic.
This
tall branch is again sub-divided. One sub-branch, with moderate
vault and face heights, travelled, in all likelihood, by sea from
the eastern Mediterranean to Gibraltar, around Spain, and up to
western France, Britain, and Scandinavia. In the last two countries,
and especially in the British Isles, it contributed an important
element to the population. It is not easy to find the prototype of
this Megalithic group; some of the Mesopotamians seem to have
been very close to it metrically, and some East Africans as well; we
shall later find evidence of it on the shores of the Black Sea. For
the moment we can only postulate that it came from some as yet
unidentified part of southwestern Asia, southeastern Europe, or
northeastern Africa.
The
other sub-branch, characterized by an extremely high cranial vault
and a very long face and nose, moved westward from the plains of
southern Russia and Poland into central and western Europe. The
members of this group, who were culturally associated with
Corded pottery, performed a different part in Neolithic history from
that of the Danubians. They were not peasants, but traders and
presumably warriors. Their final destinations were southern and
central Germany, especially Saxony and Thuringia, and southern
Scandinavia. From a late center in the Rhine- lands, they were
destined to play an important part in subsequent metal age
prehistory.
The
Neolithic population of Europe did not wholly consist of these
various invaders just described, although they perhaps made up the
more numerous element in the whole. In the western and northern
fringes, away from the gates of entry, earlier peoples of Mesolithic
and even Palaeolithic tradition remained. In Spain, Portugal, and
Italy small Mediterranean types of pre-Neolithic or Early Neolithic
dating may well have blended with the invaders in large numbers, but
since the two elements would have been much the same it is
impossible to determine the proportions of each.
In
France, Switzerland, and Belgium a major survival of Mesolithic
cultural factors into the Neolithic is accompanied by a large
brachycephalic increment, which is indubitably related to, and
in some degree ancestral to, the modern Alpine race. Farther north,
from Belgium to Sweden and particularly in the Danish archipelago,
one finds, under similar circumstances of cultural survival, a
numerous brachycephalic element, called the Borreby type, which is
somewhat different from the
THE
NEOLITHIC INVASIONS
129
ancestral
Alpine form farther south. The northern brachycephals were larger
headed and definitely higher vaulted and wider faced; with taller
stature, heavier limb bones, and in many cases heavy browridges,
wide jaws, and low orbits. The shape of the skull is sometimes
angular, while that of the Alpines is perhaps more often
globular, although this difference does not apply to all individuals
and should not be overstressed.
Both
the Alpine and the Borreby types bear strong resemblances to the few
known brachycephalic examples of Upper Palaeolithic crania. The
Borreby type in particular resembles those from Afalou bou Rummel in
Algeria. Both also resemble the Mesolithic skulls from Ofnet in
Bavaria. There can be little doubt that brachycephalic man in
western Europe was not a Neolithic importation but a Mesolithic
survival. It is possible that these two types evolved from
Palaeolithic man by some process which involved the disappearance or
absorption of the normal, longheaded and numerically more
important element. It is also possible that they came into Europe
during the Mesolithic from some source or sources unknown. The
Mesolithic is still so much of a blank in the racial sense that
almost any movement might have taken place without detection.
Northern
Britain, parts of Ireland, Norway, and the north of Sweden formed an
area of isolation during the entire Neolithic, into which the ideas
and products of civilization gradually and only partially seeped. We
do not know, from contemporary evidence, that Palaeolithic man of
the type already indicated in the same regions during the
Mesolithic, survived in these spots through the Neolithic, but later
evidence will make that assumption reasonable.
The
forests of northern Europe east of Scandinavia were inhabited by a
hunting and fishing people who formed part of a general circumpolar
cultural group which probably extended with little technical change
across Siberia to the Pacific, and may have influenced North
America. In the European and western Siberian segment of this belt,
eminent authority opines on cultural grounds that the Neolithic
inhabitants were the direct ancestors of an element in the modern
Finno-Ugrians physically, although not necessarily linguistically.
The skeletal remains from this region, while few, yet reveal the
presence of at least three separate types; a presumably Corded
variety of Mediterranean; a Palaeolithic-looking mesocephal with low
orbits and a wide face, which does simulate an element common
among the modern Finns; and an incipiently or partially mongoloid
brachycephal, with high orbits, a long face, and a prominent nose,
resembling certain modern central Asiatic Turks.
The
racial history of Europe in the Neolithic, therefore, is a problem
in
130
THE
RACES OF EUROPE
the
balance between new racial streams of relatively uniform type which
poured in from the south and east, and older, residual elements
which survived or suffered amalgamation in the west and north.
It again reveals the marginal character of Europe in the racial as
well as cultural sense, and shows the necessity of a greater
knowledge of race in Asia and in Africa if we are to understand our
own origins.