- •Grammar as a part of language. Padadigmatic and syntagmatic units
- •2) Grammar as a linguistic discipline. Variants of grammar. Types of Grammatical analysis.
- •3) Division of Grammar. Morphology and syntax
- •4) Grammatical meaning, Grammatical form
- •5) Grammatical category. The notion of opposition as the basis of gram.Categories.
- •6) The word as the smallest naming unit and the main unit of morphology
- •7) Parts of speech. Different approaches to the classification of parts of speech.
- •8) Criteria for establishing parts of speech:semantic,formal.Notinal and functional p. Of s.
- •9) General characteristics of the noun. Morphological, semantic and syntactic properties of the noun. Gramatically relevant classes of nouns
- •10. Morphological categories of Noun (number, case)
- •11. Article in English. Number and meaning of articles. The problem
- •12. Adjective. Classes. Statives
- •13. The adverb. Classes. Degrees of comparison
- •§ 3. In accord with their word-building structure adverbs may be simple and derived.
- •§ 4. Adverbs are commonly divided into qualitative, quantitative and circumstantial.
- •14. Verb. Classification
- •15. The Category of Tense. Problem of future. Future in the past
- •16. The place of continuous forms in the system of the English verb. The category of aspect
- •17. The place of perfect forms in the system of the English verb. The category of order (phase, correlation)
- •18)The category of voice in English. General ch-tics. The problem of the number of voices.
- •19. The category of mood in English. General characteristics. The problems of Subjunctive.
- •20) Finite and non-finite forms of the verb. Category of representation
- •21) General ch-ics of syntax as a part of grammar
- •22)The problem of the definition of the phrase. Phrases and forms of word connection
- •23) General characteristics of the sentence. Predicativity. Predication.
- •24) Classification of sentences. Structural and communicative types of sentence.
- •25)The formal structure of sentences. The model of parts of the sentence
- •26)The Problems of the Object, the Attribute, the adverbial modifier
- •27) The distributional model of the sentence. The model of immediate constituents
- •28). The transformational model of the sentence
- •29. Functional sentence perspective. The theme and rheme
- •30. The Semantic structure of the sentence. General Overview of Semantic Syntax
- •Valency theory
- •Deep case theory
- •33. Compositional Syntax
- •34. Pragmatic approach to the study of language units. Basic notions of pragmatic linguistics.
- •35) The grammatical features of dialogues and communicative parts.
- •37.Utterances and Texts. Speech Act theory
- •38. Text linguistics. Grammatical aspects of the Text.
- •39. General characteristics of the composite sentence. The compound sentence
- •40. The Comlex Sentence. Principles of classification
13. The adverb. Classes. Degrees of comparison
is usually defined as a word expressing either property of an action, or property of another property, or circumstances in which an action occurs.
The above definition, approaching the adverb as a word of the secondary qualifying order, presents the entire class of adverbial words as the least self-dependent of all the four notional parts of speech.
the adverb is characterised by its own, specific nominative value, providing for its inalienable status in the system of the parts of speech.
§ 2. In accord with their categorial meaning, adverbs are characterised by a combinability with verbs, adjectives and words of adverbial nature. The functions of adverbs in these combinations consist in expressing different adverbial modifiers.
§ 3. In accord with their word-building structure adverbs may be simple and derived.
Simple adverbs are rather few, and nearly all of them display functional semantics, mostly of pronominal character: here, there, now, then, so, quite, why, how, where, when.
The typical adverbial affixes in affixal derivation are, first and foremost, the basic and only productive adverbial suffix -ly (slowly, tiredly, rightly, firstly), and then a couple of others of limited distribution, such as -ways (sideways, crossways), -wise (clockwise), -ward(s) (homewards, seawards, afterwards). The characteristic adverbial prefix is a- (away, ahead, apart, across).
§ 4. Adverbs are commonly divided into qualitative, quantitative and circumstantial.
By qualitative such adverbs are meant as express immediate, inherently non-graded qualities of actions and other qualities. The typical adverbs of this kind are qualitative adverbs in -ly. E. g.:The little boy was crying bitterly over his broken toy
The adverbs interpreted as "quantitative" include words of degree. These are specific lexical units of semi-functional nature expressing quality measure, or gradational evaluation of qualities. They may be subdivided into several very clearly pronounced sets.
The first set is formed by adverbs of high degree. These adverbs are sometimes classed as "intensifiers": very, quite, entirely, utterly, highly, greatly, perfectly, absolutely, strongly, considerably, pretty, much. The second set includes adverbs of excessive degree (direct and reverse) also belonging to the broader subclass of intensifiers: too, awfully, tremendously, dreadfully, terrifically. The third set is made up of adverbs of unexpected degree: surprisingly, astonishingly, amazingly. The fourth set is formed by adverbs of moderate degree: fairly, comparatively, relatively, moderately, rather. The fifth set includes adverbs of low degree: slightly, a little, a bit. The sixth set is constituted by adverbs of approximate degree: almost, nearly. The seventh set includes adverbs of optimal degree: enough, sufficiently, adequately.
The category of the degrees of comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives. It is a system of three- member opposemes (soon — sooner — soonest] actively — more actively — most actively) showing whether the characteristic the adverb contains is absolute or relative. The 'comparative' and 'superlative' members of the opposeme are built up either synthetically (by means of affixation or suppletivity), or analytically (by means of word-morphemes). The synthetic and analytical forms are in complementary distribution ' like those of the adjective, only the number of 'synthetic forms is smaller inasmuch as there are fewer monosyllabic and disyllabic adverbs. Cf. lazy — lazier — (the) laziestf
lazily — more lazily — most lazily.
With regard to the category of the degrees of comparison adverbs (like adjectives) fall into comparables and non-comparables. The number of non-comparables is much greater among adverbs than among adjectives. In other words, there are many adverbs whose lexemes contain but one word (yesterday, always* northward, upstairs, etc.)