39. General characteristics of the composite sentence. The compound sentence

A simple sentence contains one predication. It is monopredicative. A composite sentence is polypredicative. It contains two or more predications, or clauses. Structurally a clause may not differ from a sentence, and in many cases clauses can be turned into sentences. Functionally they differ essentially: a sentence is an independent utterance, a clause is part of the smallest utterance.

Clauses in a composite sentence are joined by coordination or subordination. Coordinate clauses are equal in rank. A subordinate clause usually serves as an adjunct to some head-word in the principle clause. There are also structures with coordination and subordination.

Besides simple and composite sentences there are structures which are called semi-composite (осложненные). Here belong sentences with homogeneous subjects or predicates (semi-compound) and sentences with secondary predications (semi-complex).

Clauses may be connected by special connective words (syndetically) or without them (asyndetically). Connectives may be subdivided into two main groups: conjunctions and conjunctive pronouns and adverbs (sometimes particles). Conjunctions perform the connective function only. Conjunctive words, belonging to other parts of speech, are notional constituents of clauses: 1 wonder who told you about it. (Who connects clauses and it is the subject of the subordinate clause).

The distinction between coordination and subordination may be very vague, especially in asyndetic sentences:

You are an architect. you ought to know all about it.

There is a view that coordination and subordination are clearly distinguished only in syndetic sentences and asyndetic sentences cannot be divided into compound and complex.

Compound sentence Coordinate clauses are units of equivalent syntactic status. Each of them has the force of an independent statement (proposition).

Main types of semantic relations between coordinate clauses (copulative, adversative, disjunctive, causative, consecutive) can be also found between simple sentences. This has given cause to some scholars to deny the existence of a compound sentence as a special structural type and treat it as a sequence of simple sentences. This idea is usually rejected, as a compound sentence is a semantic, grammatical and intonational unity. Each coordinate clause functions as part of this unity.

As coordination reflects the logical sequence of thought, the order of coordinate clauses is usually fixed:

He came at 5 and we had dinner together.

The opening clause is most independent structurally, the following clauses may be to a certain extent dependent on the first clause — they may be elliptical, may contain anaphoric pronouns, etc.

Coordinating conjunctions and meanings rendered by them are described in Practical Grammar.

40. The Comlex Sentence. Principles of classification

Complex sentences are structures of subordination with two or more immediate constituents which are not syntactically equivalent. There is much more to be said about the complex sentences than about the compound ones, because the semantic relations which can be expressed by subordination are much more numerous and more varied['vɛərɪd] than with coordination, e.g.time, place, concession, purpose, etc.

Types of complex sentences: The notions of declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentence appear to be applicable to some types of complex sentences as well.

Classification of clauses of complex sentences:

1. According to the functional principle we distinguish object, attributive, adverbial, subject, predicative clauses, etc.

2. According to the categorial principle subordinate clauses are divided into 3 categorial semantic groups: substantive-nominal, qualification-nominal and adverbial. e.g.That they were justified in this she could not but admit. – That fact she could not but admit. e.g.Ann had become aware of the fact that she was talking loudly. – Ann had become aware of that fact. e.g.I’ll deserve your confidence if you give me another chance. – I’ll deserve your confidence on condition that you give me another chance. The two classifications are mutually complementary: - clauses of primary nominal positions (subject, predicative, object clauses); - clauses of secondary nominal positions (attributive clauses); - clauses of adverbial positions (adverbial clauses).

3. According to the degree of self-dependence of clauses complex sentences are divided into monolythic and segregative sentence structures. Monolythic complex sentences are based on obligatory subordinative connections of clauses, whereas segregative complex sentences are based on optional subordinative connections.  Monolythic complex sentences can be: 1) merger(слияние) complex sentences, i.e. sentences with subject and predicative subordinate clauses, where the subordinate clause is fused with the principal one. E.g.The trouble is we are to change our plans. 2) valencymonolyth complexes, whose subordinate clauses are dependent on the obligatory right-hand valency of the verb in the principal clause. Here belong sentences with object clauses and valency-determined adverbial clauses. E.g.I think a man like that is a real artist. – I think -… e.g.Put the book where it belongs. – Put the book - … 3) correlation monolyth complexes, which are based on subordinate correlations. Complex sentences with restrictive subordinate clauses are included into this subtype. E.g.The girl played the piano with such feeling as you had never experienced. 4) arrangementmonolyth complexes, whose obligatory connection between the principal and subordinate clauses is determined only by the linear ['lɪnɪə] order of clausal positions. E.g. If you refused her present, it would upset her. The connection between the clauses is obligatory. Rearrangement of clausal positions turns the connection between the clauses into optional. It would upset her if you refused her present.

The connection between the subordinate clauses can be parallel (homogeneous, heterogeneous) and consecutive (direct and oblique[ə'bli:k]).

1. Grammar as part of language. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of grammatical units. Stratification of Language.

2. Grammar as a linguistic discipline. Variants of grammar. Types of Grammatical analysis.

3. Division of Grammar. Morphology and syntax.

4. Grammatical meaning, grammatical form.

5. Grammatical category. The notion of opposition as the basis of grammatical categories.

6. The word as the smallest naming unit and the main unit of morphology. The morpheme as an elementary meaningful unit. Synthetic and analytical means of form- building in English.

7. Parts of speech. Different approaches to the classification of parts of speech.

8. Criteria for establishing parts of speech: semantic, formal and functional. Notional and functional parts of speech.

9. General characteristics of the noun. Morphological, semantic and syntactic properties of the noun. Grammatically relevant classes of nouns.

10. Morphological categories of Noun (number, case).

11. The article in English. Number and meaning of articles. The problem of the zero article. The category of article determination.

12. The adjective as a part of speech. The category of degree of quality (degrees of comparison) in English. The problem of adlinks (statives).

13. The adverb as a part of speech. Classes of adverbs and their characteristics. Degrees of comparison.

14. A general outline of the verb as a part of speech. Classifications of English verbs.

15. The category of tense in Russian and English compared. The problem of the future and future-in-the-past. The category of posteriority (prospect).

16. The place of continuous forms in the system of the English verb. The category of aspect.

17. The place of perfect forms in the system of the English verb. The category of order (phase, correlation).

18. The category of voice in English. General characteristics. The problem of the number of voices. Peculiarities of English passive constructions.

19. The category of mood in English. General characteristics. The problems of subjunctive.

20. Finite and non-finite forms of the verb. The category of representation (fmitude).

21. General characteristics of syntax as a part of grammar. Basic syntactic notions. Modern syntactic theories: Transformational-Generative Grammar; Constructional Syntax; Communicative Syntax.

22. The problem of the definition of the phrase. Phrases and forms of word connection.

23. General characteristics of the sentence. Predicativity. Predication.

24. Classification of sentences. Structural and communicative types of sentences.

25. The formal structure of sentences. The model of parts of the sentence.

26. The problems of the Object, the Attribute, the adverbial modifier in English sentences.

27. The distributional model of the sentence. The model of immediate constituents.

28. The transformational model of the sentence.

29. Functional sentence perspective. The theme and the rheme.

30. The semantic structure of the sentence. A general overview of Semantic Syntax.

31. Semantic syntax. Valency theory. Generative syntax.

32. Deep Case theory.

33. Compositional Syntax.

34. Pragmatic approach to the study of language units. Basic notions of pragmatic linguistics.

35. The grammatical features of dialogues and communicative parts.

36. Maxims of conversation. The Politeness Principle.

37. Utterances and texts. Speech Act Theory.

38. Text linguistics. Grammatical aspects of the text.

39. General characteristics of the composite sentence. The compound sentence.

40.The Complex sentence. Principles of classification.