Evolution of marketing

The evolution of marketing is the evolution of the exchange process. Unless two or more individuals or organizations have something to exchange, there is no need for marketing. The desire to exchange occurs only when someone produces more than he/she can consume (a surplus). This surplus is exchanged for surplus someone else produced. Possibly the first marketing transaction took place when one cave-dweller, who enjoyed making arrows but did not like to hunt, persuaded a fellow cave dweller, who liked to hunt but did not enjoy making arrows, to accept some arrows in exchange for some animal skins and meat. Since that; primitive time, marketing has become very sophisticated indeed.

The Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans all had well-: developed trade systems. The Old Testament contains many references ; to such marketing topics as money, wealth, credit, products, international ~ trade, government regulation, middlemen, taxation, poverty, welfare, pricing, trade fairs, and business ethics

During the Middle Ages trade declined. However, it picked up again during the Age of Discovery (roughly 1400-1760 A.D.) as merchants sought to extend their reach over much of the world. As you no doubt ' recall, Columbus made his first voyage to America in an effort to find a more direct trade route to Asia and the Far East.

In the late 1700s the Industrial Revolution began, and as it continued, marketing grew in importance. This latter-day development can be divided into three periods—the production era, the sales era, and the marketing era.

1 .Why is marketing considered to be the evolution of the exchange process?

2. What do you know about the marketing topics mentioned in paragraph 2 of the text?

3. Explain in what the production era differs from the sales era and the marketing era.

Health and safety advice for russia Health Advice & Necessary Vaccinations.

Generally, Russia is the same as any European country in terms of health risks. So, if you're OK living in Europe, US, Canada, Australia or elsewhere you don't need to take any special preventive measures before coming to Russia.

No vaccinations are required for entry in Russia, however, if you're coming to Russia for longer than 3 months, some Russian consulates will require an AIDS certificate before issuing your visa.

It is recommended to have the following vaccinations: tetanus and encephalitos if you're going to trek in taiga forests during May - June (in Karelia, around Novosibirsk and around Baikal).

Russia is quite a dirty country, so we recommend to always be careful when you buy food outside, always wash fresh fruits and vegetables, and try to keep your hands clean (hygenic towels or handkerchiefs may help). It may sound too obvious, but there were some cases in the last years when people would get hepatitis A or even cholera just because they bought some fruits at a market and were not careful. There's a bigger risk for such deseases in south Russia.

Health Insurance & Assistance

The state health system in Russia in general is far from being good and there are huge queues, so we recommend to avoid using its services for some minor problems. If you are looking for western standard health care it is best to go to private clinics of which there are many in Moscow and St. Petersburg (see Practicalities sections of the relevant city guides for addresses). You will have to pay as much as in Europe or the USA. It is also advisable to ask your Russian friends if they know a good doctor, as this arrangement can save you a lot of money.

Most of the people need health insurance to be treated at a hospital, however, some countries have reciprocal health care agreements with Russia. For example, British nationals do not need health insurance in Russia, as their domestic health insurance is valid in Russia as well. Contact your local health care office for details.