Instructional design	47

Time sequence of the instructional design frameworks

Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives (cognitive domain) (1956)

This framework is a way of classifying educational goals in terms of complexity. The intellectual abilities and skills of comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation are applied to, and help build, knowledge.

Feuerstein’s theory of mediated learning through Instrumental Enrichment (1957)

Building on his belief in cognitive modifiability, Feuerstein developed the concept of a mediated-learning experience in which the mediator uses prescribed tasks to promote thinking rather than rote learning.

Gagne´’s eight types of learning and five types of learned capability (1965)

Gagne´ set out an eight-level hierarchy of learning types, with problemsolving at the top. He also identified five domains of learning: motor skills, verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies and attitudes.

Ausubel and Robinson’s six hierarchically-ordered categories (1969)

These are: representational learning; concept learning; propositional learning; application; problem-solving; and creativity.

Williams’ model for developing thinking and feeling processes (1970)

This three-dimensional cross-curricular model seeks to encourage creativity. Teachers can use 18 teaching modes to promote fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration, curiosity, risk taking, complexity and imagination.

Hannah and Michaelis’ comprehensive framework for instructional objectives (1977)

The cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains are covered. Interpreting, comparing, classifying, generalising, inferring, analysing,

48 Frameworks for Thinking

synthesising, hypothesising, predicting and evaluating are listed as intellectual processes.

Stahl and Murphy’s domain of cognition taxonomic system (1981)

These authors set out a multi-stage model of information processing from preparation to generation. They also identify 21 cognitive processes (e.g. classifying, organising, selecting, utilising, verifying), which may be used singly or in combinations at different levels.

Biggs and Collis’ SOLO taxonomy (1982)

This is an assessment tool looking at the structure of the observed learning outcome. Prestructural responses betray limited understanding compared with unistructural and multistructural responses. Relational and extended abstract responses are qualitatively superior. Learners move through these response levels at each of five developmental stages.

Quellmalz’s framework of thinking skills (1987)

This framework lists five cognitive processes (recall, analysis, comparison, inference/interpretation and evaluation) and three metacognitive processes (planning, monitoring and reviewing/revising).

Presseisen’s models of essential, complex and metacognitive thinking skills (1991)

Presseisen lists five basic processes which are used in problem-solving, decision-making, critical thinking and creative thinking. She also lists six metacognitive thinking skills involved in strategy selection, understanding and monitoring.

Merrill’s instructional transaction theory (1992)

Merrill identifies 13 cognitive transactions which aid in the construction of mental models: identify, execute and interpret relate to single knowledge frames; judge, classify, generalise, decide and transfer relate to an abstraction hierarchy; propagate, analogise, substitute, design and discover relate to meaningful links between frames.