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de Bono’s frustration with analytical thinking that proceeds through argument and dialectic.

Emotions play an important part in de Bono’s model of thinking as they affect perception and decision-making by influencing what is recognised. He suggests that feelings probably change the chemical basis of the brain so that when we are influenced by emotions it is actually a different brain that is doing the thinking (de Bono, 1987, p. 109). However, while in CoRT 5 and White Hat thinking, the emphasis is on intellectual detachment, in Red Hat thinking intuition and feelings are unconstrained by reason. Indeed, for de Bono, a key purpose of thinking is to arrange the world so that our emotions can be applied in a valuable manner (de Bono, 1983, p. 704). He also believes that humour, by encouraging an unconventional, quixotic view of life, can also tell us something about perception that we have traditionally neglected in favour of logic.

Evaluation

In many ways de Bono was a pioneer, especially by finding real-world applications for some of the ideas developed by psychologists such as Bartlett (1958) and Wertheimer (1959). His emphasis on the way perception is influenced by previous experience and on patternmaking and pattern seeking is similar to that of Margolis (1987). At the same time his systemic view of thinking resembles earlier conceptions, such as the work of von Bertalanffy (1950).

Although not presented as a comprehensive theoretical framework, it has been shown by Mann (2001) that the Six Thinking Hats model is fully compatible with the problem-solving cycle and tools used in the TRIZ Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (Altshuller, 1996). Different kinds of thinking are required for different processes at each of the four stages of problem-solving: define, select, solve, evaluate. For example, White Hat thinking is needed when describing the functioning of an existing system and Green Hat thinking is required when seeking to translate generic-solution triggers into specific solutions. What is unclear is whether the use of these broad labels can improve the quality of outcomes from users of a sophisticated set of tools such as TRIZ, where the terminology is already highly specific.

138 Frameworks for Thinking

De Bono presented in his early work an individualistic approach to generative thinking in which belonging to a tradition or a community is barely a relevant concept in a post-modern world. However, his Six Thinking Hats programme is now often used by problem-solving groups and his reservations about debate and discussion as a means of enhancing the quality of thinking are somewhat at odds with his own track record of setting up various think tanks in which he has personally played a prominent role.

There is a tension in de Bono’s writing about thought as both an automatic and a conscious process. He describes thought as a flow of activation across a passive ‘surface’ rather than any active construction of meaning by a ‘self ’. De Bono’s thinking tools are designed to broaden this natural flow and direct it away from predictable channels so that new ‘flowscapes’ consisting of patterns of concepts can be established. Key to this process is the removal of the ego investment in being a ‘good’ thinker, so that learners can look objectively at their thinking; he uses the analogy of a tennis player who might look objectively at his backhand in a match he is playing. Yet this analogy and the whole conception of Blue Hat (metacognitive) thinking depends on conscious reflexivity. Similarly, in another analogy, de Bono refers to the relationship between IQ and thinking as similar to that between a car and the performance of its (conscious!) driver:

Thinking is the operating skill with which intelligence acts upon experience.

(de Bono, 1976, p. 33)

De Bono is more interested in the usefulness of developing ideas than proving the reliability or efficacy of his approach. His thinking tools were explicitly designed with practical relevance and ease of communication as key attributes. His early books with their message of escape from conventional patterns of thinking made him a popular figure in the youth culture of the late 60s and early 70s. His use of acronyms as in CoRT and visual symbols as in Six Thinking Hats are certainly positive features and his programmes are now used throughout the world in the worlds of education and business. For de Bono, their widespread use is their validation. ‘They must make sense because they work. That is the ultimate test of reality’ (de Bono, 1987, p. 13).

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There is sparse research evidence to show that generalised improvements in thinking performance can be attributed to training in the use of CoRT or Thinking Hats tools. An early evaluation of CoRT reported significant benefits for Special Educational Needs (SEN) pupils, who took an interest in and shone in the thinking lessons. De Bono suggested that this may be because SEN pupils are not dependent on knowledge, but on processing information (de Bono, 1976, p. 213). However, in a more recent study with Australian aboriginal children (Ritchie and Edwards, 1996), little evidence of generalisation was found other than in the area of creative thinking.

Summary: de Bono

				Relevance for
Purpose and structure		Some key features		teachers and learning
Main purpose(s):		Terminology:		Intended audience:
•	to promote lateral	•	acronyms and	•	the general reader
	and parallel thinking		symbols promote	•	teachers
	to stimulate		accessibility and use	•	trainers
	originality and		across contexts
	innovation
Domains addressed:		Presentation:		Contexts:
•	cognitive	•	individual tools	•	education
•	affective		organised into	•	work
			programmes	•	citizenship
		•	use of a range	•	recreation
			of media
Broad categories		Theory base:		Pedagogical stance:
covered:		•	cognitive	•	tools and programmes
•	self-regulation		neuroscience		for independent use
•	productive thinking	•	connectionism		and designed to be as
•	building	•	pragmatism		‘teacher proof ’
	understanding				as possible
•	information-gathering			•	averse to discussion
					and debate, as causes

disputes and premature judgment