152	Frameworks for Thinking

Broad categories		Theory base:		Pedagogical stance:
covered:		•	Dewey	•	teach thinking in
•	self-engagement	•	Simon’s concept of		each subject, using
•	reflective thinking		bounded rationality		teacher explanation
•	productive thinking	•	role of strategies in		and enquiry-based
•	building understanding		intelligent behaviour		learning with an
•	information-gathering	•	psychological		emphasis on
			research on bias		problem finding
			in judgment	•	provide time for
					and value reflection
Classification by:		Values:		Practical illustrations
•	type of search	•	rationalistic	for teachers:
•	quality of thought	•	individualistic	•	some examples
	and behaviour	•	pragmatic		provided of how the
					model might be used

Ennis’ taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities

Description and intended use

Ennis’ views have developed over time (he has been publishing in this area since 1962) and there have been significant changes in his thinking, particularly in the area of critical thinking dispositions (e.g. 1996). However, his basic definition has remained almost constant, worded as follows: ‘Critical thinking is reasonable and reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do’ (1985, p. 45). His intention is to provide a rationale for the teaching of critical thinking and a taxonomy of ‘goals for critical thinking’ (1985, p. 46) or an ‘outline of a conception of critical thinking’ (1998, p. 17). He claims that the significant features of this taxonomy are as follows:

•it focuses on belief and action.

•it contains statements in terms of things that people actually do or should do.

•it includes criteria to help evaluate results.

•it includes both dispositions and abilities.

•it is organised in such a way that it can form the basis for a thinking- across-the-curriculum programme as well as a separate critical thinking course at the college level.

Productive thinking	153

Although Ennis includes creative thinking in this definition, he considers that critical thinking is not equivalent to higher-order thinking, since critical thinking also involves dispositions. He proposes a set of six criteria for judging a set of critical thinking dispositions: simplicity; comprehensiveness; value; comprehensibility; conformity of its language to our everyday meanings; and the fitting of subordinates (if any) under superordinates. He rejects a further criterion, mutual exclusivity, on the basis of comprehensibility (1996). He claims that in order to ensure that categories in a critical thinking taxonomy do not overlap, it becomes necessary to redefine words with such precision that they can no longer be easily understood.

The 1998 version of his taxonomy, which is summarised below, consists of three main dispositions (with sub-categories) and 15 abilities presented as a list (some with sub-categories) to provide a ‘content outline’ for a critical thinking curriculum. The original 1987 version contained a longer and more complex list of abilities and subcategories. Ennis does not claim that either list is exhaustive.

Dispositions

Critical thinkers:

1.Care that their beliefs are true, and that their decisions be justified; that is care to ‘get it right’ to the extent possible, or at least care to do the best they can. This includes the interrelated dispositions to do the following:

a Seek alternatives (hypotheses, explanations, conclusions, plans, sources) and be open to them;

b Endorse a position to the extent that, but only to the extent that, it is justified by the information available;

c Be well informed; and

d Seriously consider points of view other than their own.

2.Represent a position honestly and clearly (theirs as well as others’). This includes the dispositions to do the following:

a Be clear about the intended meaning of what is said, written, or otherwise communicated, seeking as much precision as the situation requires;

b Determine and maintain focus on the conclusion or question; c Seek and offer reasons;