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Table 6.3. Selected tools for effective thinking, using the TASC framework

Gather / organise	• systematic exploration, using senses and memory
	• question available data
	• problem recognition
Identify	• search for additional information
	• explore goals
	• question – what is needed?
	• represent information clearly
Generate	• produce ideas
	• consult with others
	• compare options
Decide	• look at possible consequences
	• other people’s views for and against
	• establish priorities
	• select a course of action
	• make a case for the chosen course of action
	• plan steps and ways of monitoring
Implement	• monitor progress and check efficiency
	• consider alternatives and revise plan if necessary
Evaluate	• how far goals have been achieved
	• efficiency of personal and group processes and
	strategies
Communicate	• justify decisions
	• evaluate the evidence that informed decisions
	• exchange ideas on interaction and group organisation
	• recall, recount and explain succinctly

Learn from experience • analyse and reflect on the problem-solving process

•compare present with past performances

•revise the whole problem-solving procedure

•seek to generalise and transfer what has been learned

Evaluation

TASC offers a practical framework to support problem-solving through the structure of its organising ‘wheel’ or stages of the process.

262 Frameworks for Thinking

The broad categories of thinking constitute a framework rather than a taxonomy, as a number of the skills in the different sections overlap. The TASC model includes all the cognitive and metacognitive categories one might expect, including strategic thinking and reflection on what has been learned. The TASC ‘Tools for Effective Thinking’ comprise a mixture of strategies that accommodate logical, creative and practical thinking. Dispositions are included under attitudinal and motivational factors, as well as under the communication heading. The framework is offered as a guide to structure and develop thinking, especially through collaborative problem-solving and by enabling parents, teachers and learners to break each of the stages down into manageable skill areas where this is needed.

Table 6.4. Elaborated descriptions of selected TASC skill areas

Attitudinal and • being purposeful and optimistic motivational factors • interacting actively with the environment

•avoiding impulsive responses

•recognising the need for systematic exploration, accuracy and precision, making comparisons, summarising experiences, planning, being flexible in approaching problems, being persistent

•being willing to work co-operatively or independently as the occasion demands

Metacognition • being aware of incongruity, incompletion, the existence of a problem

•selecting appropriate modes of problem representation

•selecting cognitive strategies

•allocating attentional resources

•solution monitoring

•sensitivity to feedback

•awareness of one’s strengths and weaknesses, and acting accordingly

•balance between critical, analytical and creative thinking

•planning

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Using gathered	• relating new data to previous experiences
information to	• being aware of disequilibrium, incompletion,
identify and solve	incongruity
problems	• distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant
	information
	• selecting of representation: e.g. codes, conventions,
	symbols, diagrams, pictures, drawings, tables,
	charts, summaries, keywords, spider diagrams
	• seeking relationships between objects, events,
	experiences
	• keeping in mind various pieces of information
	• comparing objects, events, experiences
	• finding the class or set to which objects, events,
	experiences belong
	• understanding and using spatial and temporal
	references and patterns, including various viewpoints
	• analysing information, problems into parts
	• synthesising ideas from various sources
	• thinking about different possibilities and
	consequences
	• using logical evidence to prove things and
	defend opinions

Communicating • avoiding egocentric communication –

with co-learners thinking things through before beginning to and communicating communicate

the outcome • being clear and precise – avoiding blocking

•selecting an appropriate mode for communication

•giving instructions clearly – using logical evidence to defend opinions

•being an active listener

Learning from • comparing new experiences with previous ones experience • classifying objects, events, experiences, problems,

solutions

•considering other circumstances in which the information, experience, outcome, insight might apply

•deriving rules and principles from experiences

•hypothesising and predicting about related problems/issues

264 Frameworks for Thinking

The importance of motivation is appropriately stressed by Wallace and Adams, and in the books which support TASC there are many examples of problem-solving which learners will find emotionally engaging.

As with Halpern’s approach to teaching critical thinking (Halpern, 2002), the TASC framework is intended to help with the development of lifeskills (Wallace, 2003). To this end it encourages discussion and dialogue, as well as the public sharing of thinking after the event. The emphasis on addressing real-life problems is part of the authors’ attempt to facilitate the transfer and future use of problem-solving skills.

The TASC approach draws on a rationale based on the work of Vygotsky (1978) and the importance of social interaction in developing higher psychological processes. Other information-processing theories of intelligence and cognitive development are also cited, in particular Sternberg’s (1985) ‘Triarchic Theory of Intelligence’, and Borkowski’s model of the executive system (Borkowski, 1985). Metacognition is treated so as to bring out its knowledge and working aspects, and the descriptors used convey the importance of cognitive self-regulation through what cognitive psychologists call executive function. A simpler way of describing TASC is that it is not only about problem-solving, it is about learning how to learn.

As to the detail included within each sector or area of the model, the authors make no claim for comprehensive coverage. The extended analysis was developed after early classroom trials had indicated that a more specific focus was needed in certain areas. The language used is not intended to be prescriptive, but it is meant to be shared, with alternative simpler phrasing negotiated with learners where needed. This pragmatic approach to framework development is a highly distinctive feature of TASC.

Teachers will find the TASC cycle easy to understand and will welcome the fact that they can adapt it to the needs of pupils in different areas of the curriculum. It does, however, present significant challenges in that teachers are expected to model the processes they wish to develop, to provide frequent opportunities for learners to practise problem-solving and to move learners towards much greater autonomy.

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Some evaluation of the impact of the TASC approach has been undertaken: on problem-solving (Maltby, 1995), on gifted pupils in South Africa (van der Horst, 2000) and as a means of staff development (Adams and Wallace, 1991).

Summary: Wallace and Adams

				Relevance for teachers
Purpose and structure		Some key features		and learning
Main purpose(s):		Terminology:		Intended audience:
•	to support the	•	very clear terminology	•	curriculum developers
	development of		in everyday language,	•	educational
	problem-solving and		to be used by learners		psychologists
	thereby improve		in discussion and	•	teachers and parents
	achievement and		reflection	•	learners, including
	attitudes				those for whom English
•	to prepare students for				is a second language
	active roles in society
Domains addressed:		Presentation:		Contexts:
•	cognitive	•	as a series of practical	•	education
•	affective		guides for teachers	•	work
•	conative		with the theoretical	•	citizenship
•	social		rationale developed	•	recreation
			in articles
Broad categories		Theory base:		Pedagogical stance:
covered:		•	Vygotsky’s	•	start with real-life
•	self engagement		development of		problems
	and self-regulation		higher psychological	•	collaborative
•	reflective thinking		processes		problem-solving as a
•	productive thinking	•	Sternberg’s ‘Triarchic		practical context in
•	building understanding		Theory of Intelligence’		which to develop
•	information-gathering	•	Bandura’s social		transferable skills
			learning theory	•	move from modelling to
					guided activity to
					autonomy
				•	provide ample practice
					in strategy use
				•	emphasise motivation
					and self-regulation