Cognitive structure and/or development	239

Motivational reaction and reflection

Drawing on attribution theory (Weiner, 1986), Pintrich suggests that individuals will try to understand the reasons for success or failure by attributing the outcome to such factors as skill, luck and effort. A belief that failure occurred through lack of natural ability is likely to undermine a student’s motivation. Attribution retraining, therefore, generally tries to help the student to see learning as something that he/she can achieve and control by working hard and using effective strategies. Pintrich argues that changing attributions for life events will lead to new beliefs that will have a bearing on new tasks at the planning phase.

Regulation of behaviour

Behavioural forethought, planning and action

Pintrich recognises that planning one’s behaviour in a purposive manner is essentially a cognitive function. However, he considers it reasonable to locate student attempts to plan their behaviour in an intentional fashion within the column dealing with behavioural regulation. Strategies for learners may include various time-management activities (e.g. planning an examination revision schedule or deciding when to tackle homework); and self-observation and monitoring (e.g. recording how many new French vocabulary words are learned each week, or how many pages of a new novel are read). Such information may result in further planning and action.

Behavioural monitoring and awareness

This involves relating the monitoring of behaviour and effort levels in the light of progress made. A student may, for example, plan to work at French course assignments on two evenings each week, but may find that this is insufficient and that additional time or greater effort is required.

Behavioural control and regulation

Here Pintrich refers to the learner’s actual control and regulation of behaviour; for example, applying persistence and effort. It is important to know when, and from whom, to seek help. The skilled learner does not wish to become overly dependent on others, but does obtain assistance in dealing with particularly difficult problems.