Instructional design		71
Domains addressed:		Presentation:		Contexts:
•	cognitive	•	clear description	•	education
			of theory but
			academic in style
Broad categories		Theory base:		Pedagogical stance:
covered:		•	draws upon	•	belief in the
•	productive		Piaget and		importance of
	thinking		Vygotsky		presenting new
•	building				learning in such a
	understanding				way as to relate prior
•	information-				knowledge to new
	gathering				knowledge
				•	use of advance
					organisers to scaffold
					understanding
				•	start with big
					concepts
				•	teacher-structured
					learning rather than
					pupil enquiry
Classification by:		Values:		Practical illustrations
•	types of learning,	•	rationalist	for teachers:
	which differ in	•	technological	•	few examples of how
	structural	•	all students can		to apply the theory
	complexity		learn if taught well
•	superordinate	•	opposes
	and subordinate		sentimentality
	concepts		regarding the critical/
			creative skills
			of young learners

Williams’ model for developing thinking and feeling processes

Description and intended use

In 1970, Williams published the first volume of his work on classroom ideas for encouraging thinking and feeling (Williams, 1970). He makes use of a three-dimensional model (figure 3.1) and argues that developing different teaching strategies and adopting different

72 Frameworks for Thinking

teaching roles across a range of subjects can bring about changes in students’ cognitive and affective behaviours, moving them towards a higher level of creative thinking (see also Williams, 1972).

Williams describes 18 diverse teaching strategies which encourage not only thinking, but also the expression of feelings about both content and the learning process. He provides detailed lesson plans that envisage the three intersecting dimensions of subject content, teacher behaviour and pupil behaviours coming together to encourage creativity. Williams is striving towards an increase in student creative output, placing equal value on cognitive and affective aspects.

Creativity is a complex mental process that is difficult to define or measure. For Williams, it involves putting together new, different and unique ideas by employing the four cognitive and four affective behaviours shown in dimension three of the model in figure 3.1 and outlined below:

Cognitive behaviours

1.fluency – generating a large number of ideas

2.flexibility – being able to change categories

3.originality – being able to come up with a unique thought

4.elaboration – being able to take one idea and embellish it.

Fig. 3.1. Williams’ model for encouraging thinking and feeling.