Cognitive structure and/or development	213

Domains addressed:		Presentation:		Contexts:
•	cognitive	•	in addition to primary	•	education
•	affective		sources, many other	•	work
•	psychomotor		accounts are available	•	citizenship
				•	recreation
Broad categories		Theory base:		Pedagogical stance:
covered:		•	psychometrics	•	provide for multiple
•	self-engagement	•	neuropsychology		ways of learning
•	reflective thinking	•	evolutionary	•	learner-centred,
•	productive thinking		psychology		recognising individual
•	building understanding				differences
•	information-gathering			•	seeks to raise teacher
•	perception				expectations
Classification by:		Values:		Practical illustrations
•	areas of experience	•	equal opportunities	for teachers:
		•	cultural sensitivity	•	enough to encourage
					teachers to generate
					many more

Koplowitz’s theory of adult cognitive development

Description and intended use

The theoretical foundations of Koplowitz’s theory are Piagetian (Koplowitz, 1984). The first two stages of his theory correspond to Piaget’s ‘concrete operations’ and ‘formal operations’. The remaining stages are two post-formal stages that go beyond Piaget’s stage theory. At the third stage, post-logical or system thinking, the individual understands that there are often simultaneous causes that cannot be separated. Koplowitz then offers a fourth stage, unitary operational thought, where the way we perceive the external world is only one of many possible constructs; and causality which had been thought of as linear is now seen as pervading all the universe, connecting all events with each other. This connectivity of all things is holistic, going beyond rational linear thinking and can best be conveyed through context, metaphors, paradoxes, experience and even mysticism (Koplowitz, 1990). Koplowitz believes that, although very few people are capable of sustaining a unitary consciousness, many can achieve momentary unitary perspectives of situations.

214 Frameworks for Thinking

As implicitly shown in table 5.1, Koplowitz sees his theory as applying to problem-solving in personal and social contexts. He illustrates the potential use of the theory (Koplowitz, 1987) by describing a troubled organisation and explaining how individuals at different developmental stages analyse a problem. He maintains that the theory has three main uses:

1.it helps determine the cognitive development level that an adult is operating at and whether an intervention strategy is required

2.it provides an insight into where and how it is appropriate to teach critical thinking and the limitations of critical thinking

3.it is inspirational, in that encourages us to be passionate about thinking and improving thinking. Logic is not seen as an abstract standard by which thinking can be measured but rather as a characteristic of one stage of human development.

Koplowitz suggests that there is a need to teach not only logical thinking but also post-logical thinking. In such teaching three balances must be maintained. First, there needs to be a balance between thought and action. While it is important to search for evidence and not be impulsive, it is also important to know when to stop thinking and take action. Second, while it is important to be unbiased in use of evidence, it is also important to trust in one’s own hunches and intuitive processes. Third, although adults need to think abstractly, they also need to think concretely and emotionally (although Koplowitz does acknowledge that it might take years of Gestalt therapy to arrive at the ability to move from ‘confrontation is rude’ to ‘I get embarrassed when confronted’).

Evaluation

For Koplowitz the most important aspect of his theory is its inspirational quality. He is concerned with encouraging people to be passionate about thinking and improving thinking.

Although he states the foundation of his theory is Piagetian, his post-logical stage and unitary stage transcend Piagetian theory. Koplowitz’s post-logical thinking is closely aligned with systemic thinking which, for some authors (Demetriou, 1990; Kallio, 1995; and Kohlberg, 1990) would be identical to Piaget’s ‘consolidated

Table 5.1. Koplowitz’s stages in adult cognitive development

	Pre-logical	Logical	Post-logical	Unitary
Cause	one-step	linear	cyclical	all-pervading;
				cause and effect as
				manifestations of one
				dynamic
Logic	emotion over logic;	logical	logic in context	one communication
	process not			tool out of many
	separated from
	content
Relation among	unrelated	independent	interdependent	constructed
variables
Blame/problem	others	where problem	in the system	problems as
location		starts		opportunities/boundary
				constructed
Intervention site	others	where the	where there is	where appropriate
		problem is	leverage
Ability to deal	concrete	abstract	relationships	spiritual; non-material
with the
abstract
Boundaries	closed	closed	open	constructed

216 Frameworks for Thinking

formal operations’. A recurring theme in the literature that criticises Piaget’s formal operation stage for overemphasising the power of pure logic in problem-solving seeks to differentiate post-formal thinking in that it places greater emphasis on problem finding than problem-solving. Marchand (2001) maintains that, given the inconclusiveness of the research carried out so far, it is not possible to determine the true nature of what post-formal thought is.

Koplowitz believes that individuals operating at his highest stage, the unitary approach, no longer work out their answers but rather have a direct or observational access to them, and therefore there is no ‘unitary thought’. This unitary approach receives scant treatment in the literature outside of spiritual disciplines and modern physics.

A thorough search of the literature would indicate that Koplowitz’s work has not influenced educational practice. In the early 1990s Koplowitz moved out of academia and into management consultancy. Since then, he has not elaborated on his theory and, outside of transpersonal psychology, it has received little attention. Where Koplowitz has exemplified his stages of thought, he has done so through showing how they manifest themselves in daily life at work. He describes the stages, but offers no explanation as to how you can move individuals through his stages of thought.

Summary: Koplowitz

			Relevance for teachers
Purpose and structure		Some key features		and learning
Main purpose(s):		Terminology:	Intended audience:
•	to promote an	• clear, with unfamiliar	•	designers of
	inspirational concept	terms well-defined		instruction and
	of post-logical thinking			assessment
•	to provide a tool for		•	teachers
	consultants to use		•	researchers
	in assessment and
	intervention