§ 5. The prepositions of, by and to may become entirely devoid of lexical meaning and serve to express mere grammatical rela- tions. This occurs in the following constructions:

e.g. Anne was the wife of a miner.

They were followed by their two daughters. They offered the job to Hawkins.

The prepositions are said to be grammaticalized in this case.

CONJUNCTIONS

§ 1. Conjunctions are structural words that serve to connect words or phrases as well as clauses or sentences (see the examples

below).

Conjunctions may be single words (e.g. and, as, because, but, or, though, while, etc.)> phrases consisting of more than one word (e.g. in order that, on condition (that), in case, as soon as, as long as, for fear (that), as if, as though, etc.) and also correlative conjunctions, i.e. conjunctions that are always used in pairs (e.g. as...as, both.,.and, either...or, not only...but also, etc.).

Note. Some ing-forms and participles are also used as conjunctions (e.g. suppos- ing, seeing, given (= on condition, if), providing or provided).

§ 2. Conjunctions have a lexical meaning of their own.

e.g. He came to see me because he felt happy. He came to see me though he felt happy. He came to see me when he felt happy. He came to see me if he felt happy.

Note. The lexical meaning of the conjunction that is vague. It serves to intro- duce different kinds of clauses. e.g. That I was not going to be popular with the other children soon became clear to

my parents, {subject clause)

The probability is that he refused to cooperate, (predicative clause) He believed that his father was an innocent man. (object clause) I was sure that many would follow his example, (object clause) My father then sold everything that he might have the money for my educa- tion, (adverbial clause of purpose) He was so shabby that no decent landlady would take him in. (adverbial clause

of result) He agreed with the assertion that his results fell short of the requirements.

(appositive clause).

§ 3. According to their role in the sentence, conjunctions fall into two groups: coordinating conjunctions (e.G. Accordingly, and,

besides, both...and, but, either,..or, hence, likewise, moreover, never- theless, or, still, therefore, yet, etc.) and subordinating conjunctions (e.g. after, as, as,..as, as long as, because, before, if, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whether, etc.).

Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences which are independent of each other.

e.g. His light-brown hair was fine and thick.

She took a piece of cake and a cup of tea.

She flung the door open and entered.

She felt jealous because there was someone who knew what was so closely connected with her father and what she herself had not known.

Meg ordered a fresh pot of tea and they settled down to dis- cuss the new complication.

Just now I can't think of anything but of how you were made to suffer.

She looked scornful but she was secretly pleased.

She could no longer think clearly or speak with decision.

She was furious at me, yet I didn't care.

It was hard to get the story clear from her cousin's answers, nevertheless she found out everything.

Subordinating conjunctions serve to join a subordinate clause to the principal clause.

e.g. When the play was over he asked her if she would let him see her home.

He felt marvellously happy as though everything he did were

a marvel.

The two girls were silent till he left the room. He winked at me as he passed. The old man said to the boy: "If you don't like me you may

go home whenever you choose."

Subordinating conjunctions may occasionally introduce a word or a phrase within a simple sentence.

e.g. When a child, he often had to run errands for his elders. His father was sharp with his children, while at home. He promised to sell the car if necessary.

There was a dry, pungent smell in the air, as though of dry

vegetation, crisped by the sun. He looked happy though somewhat tired.

Note. It should be pointed out that a number of conjunctions (a) have hom- onyms among prepositions (b) and adverbs (c).

e.g. a) He had not heard himself called that name since his mother died.

2. Everything has gone wrong since that night.

3. He had his last meal in the restaurant car and hasn't had anything to eat since.

1. He found himself in his mother's arms before he saw her.

2. I talked to him before the conference.

3. I've never seen him so angry before.

1. They spoke little until they reached the less busy road.

2. He stayed up until dawn, reading and writing.

1. After he had taken all the things out, she started the car.

2. After lunch they all went to their rooms.