§ 57. The rules of the sequence of tenses in object clauses are sometimes violated. This occurs in the following cases:

1) In present-time contexts after a past form in the principal clause when reference is made to the actual present time (a), the actual past time (b) or the actual future time (c). This is found In dialogues (in plays, novels, stories) and also in newspaper and ra- dio reports.

e.g. a) I told Lewis that we're worried about Myrtle.

I was obliged to tell him that too much depends on our de- cision.

Muriel said she's been ringing you all day, Mother. I wonder if you understood a word of what I have been saying.

b) I think you said you came in a taxi.

"All night long I have been dreaming about this break- fast." "I thought you said you didn't sleep."

c) I came to tell you that I'll vote against you.

I read the other day that they are going to raise the war

pensions. "Did you know," she said, "that Roy is having Lord and

Lady Boscastle to lunch?"

In the above examples we may speak of the absolute use of fi- nite forms as they actually refer the actions to the present, past or

future.

It should be pointed out that though there is a tendency in present-day English to use the finite forms absolutely, the well-es- tablished tradition of their relative use is still holding ground. There are numerous examples of the same kind as those given above in which the rules of the sequence of tenses are strictly ob- served. Moreover, sometimes the formal dependence of the finite form of the object clause on that of the principal clause appears even illogical, contradicting the actual state of things, and yet the tradition does not give way.

e.g. "I came to see how your health was," he said to Miss Marple. You are not angry with me because I quite forgot it was my

birthday today. I hear you are going to be married again; I thought you were

tired of that game. I didn't know I was so strong.

2) After a past form in the principal clause when the speaker believes that he is dealing with facts, statements or opinions which are true of all times, are a kind of general truth. In this case the Present Indefinite is used in the object clause after a past form in the principal clause. Examples of this kind are not very numerous.

e.g. You made me understand what love really is.

They were so young that they did not know what an advan- tage it is to be in society.

Soames was realizing more and more than ever how essential reputation is to a solicitor.

3) With certain modal verbs having only one form, e.g. must, should, ought and need.

e.g. I wrote that I must see him.

He said he was sure that there must be some mistake. I didn't think you need worry.

I knew that from now on he should do no more work. Two people advised me recently, almost in the same words, that I ought to see a doctor.

§ 58. As has been said, the rules of the sequence of tenses are mainly applied in object clauses. Yet these rules are strictly ob- served in some other cases too:

a) in subject and predicative clauses,

e.g. How she managed to do it is not known. This is not what I expected. That he has behaved as a coward is a fact. After all, it's what we've been hoping all along, isn't it? Why they had voted against him was a mystery. My first impression was that they all behaved very well. That he would soon ask for help was almost a certainty. My only fear was that Finn would forget what he was sup- posed to be doing.

b) in appositive clauses,

e.g. The author expresses the confidence that readers of the paper

will support the candidate.

She had the sensation that someone hidden among the trees was watching her as she passed.

c) in clauses of purpose (in which we mainly find the modal verbs can and may),

e.g. I want to move to London so that I can really begin a new life.

As you go, leave the door open so that the light may show

you some of the way down. The doctor stepped around so that she could see him, and

nodded. He exclaimed loudly and clearly, so that all might hear.

d) in simple sentences as well as in all types of clauses in so- called inner speech (a stylistic device which consists in the author describing the thoughts of his characters as if they were speaking to themselves),

e.g. The house wasn't too bad, he reflected to himself. It was good, solidly built, though rather ugly. It would be quite comfortable to live in.

It was quite true, thought Lady Seal. Neville had spoken. surprisingly well that morning, as though at last he were fully alive to his responsibilities. She would ask him to luncheon. But perhaps he would be busy; many people were busy in those days.

e) in simple sentences in which a parenthetic sentence is in- serted (the tense form of the simple sentence depends on that of the parenthetic one),

e.g. The house had, he admitted, a feeling of solidity and security. The idea wasn't too bad, he reflected to himself. It was all being done very well, Mrs Bantry thought.

§59. In all the other clauses, i.e. other than object, subject, predicative, appositive clauses and clauses of purpose, the use of the finite forms is structurally independent, i.e. the finite form is chosen in accordance with the sense to be conveyed.

Yet in narration in the vast majority of attributive clauses as well as clauses of time, cause, result, comparison, condition or concession we find past forms. In fact, this seems to be the gener- al rule. But the reason why it is used is not its structural depen- dence on the finite form in the principal clause. Since all the events in narration refer to the past, it is only natural that one of the past forms should be used in these types of clauses.

e-g. I was in the garden one morning with Brenda when a car drew up to the front door.

But no one knew how the Greeks were holding on, because

the supplies were getting scarce. A tall tired-looking man, whom he had not met before, came

out and without a word led him into the office. It was one of the happiest afternoons he had ever spent. She was as glad to end the conversation as he was. Harris was so overcome with joy that he fainted.

But when necessary, it is possible to use any tense form re- quired by the situation in such clauses.

e.g. Georgie, who is now twenty-six, had been an undergraduate

at Cambridge, where she had taken a degree of economics. We were standing in the part of the market that is devoted to

flowers. "It was many years ago," said Miss Marple, "but nevertheless

human nature was very much the same as it is now." He was as fond of his father as I am of mine. I had known Palmer, when this story starts, for nearly four

years. I had never seen him before and I had never heard anything

about him at the time, though I have heard a good deal since.

§ 60. The rules of the sequence of tenses are also observed in clauses of the second, third, etc. grade of subordination. Yet the choice of the finite form does not depend in this case on the finite form in the principal clause — it is determined by the form of the verb in the clause to which it is subordinated.

e.g. He hurried her away, grumbling to himself | (1) that he had known | (2) how it would be.

In the above example, clause 1 is subordinated to the principal clause and the Past Perfect is used to express the priority of the action to that of the principal clause; clause 2, however, is subor- dinated to clause 1 and the Future-in-the-Past serves to show an action following that of clause 1.

In the following example the Past Indefinite in clause 1 shows that the action is simultaneous with that of the principal clause; the Past Perfect in clause 2 expresses the priority of the action to that in clause 1.

e.g. I discovered | (1) that he thought | (2) nothing specially unusual had happened.

The same rule is illustrated in the following examples:

e.g. Awkwardly, with kindness, he asked me about my studies. He said that Ann had told him how I was working.

But I was delayed and when I arrived the landlady told me that the girl had said she was not used to being kept wait- ing and had gone.

She was always so sure that at last she had found exactly what she wanted.

I thought you said that you were trying to get a job.

I thought I knew why they had come.

VOICE

§ 61. Voice is the form of the verb which serves to show whether the subject of the sentence is the agent or the object of the action expressed by the predicate verb. There are two voices in English — the Active Voice and the Passive Voice.

Note. The terms the Active Voice and the Passive Voice are used with reference to the form of the verb. Sentences in which the verb is used in the Active or in the Passive Voice are called active and passive constructions respectively.