§ 125. To sum up all the forms described above, it is possible to say that unreality is expressed in present-day English by the following means:

1. by mood forms;

2. by the tense shift;

3. by modal phrases.

§ 126. All these means of expressing unreality may have the continuous (a) and passive (b) forms if the lexical meaning of the verb admits of that and when it is required by the situation.

e.g. a) If he were not reading now we'd turn on the radio.

If he were in Moscow they would be showing him the city. He looked at me as if he were wondering what they had on

their minds. b) They proposed that the meeting be adjourned (should be

adjourned). If he had been sent for at once he might have saved us a

lot of trouble. He wished he had been told about it.

§ 127. Before describing the use of the various forms of unre- ality it is necessary to understand the factors which determine their choice.

1. Sometimes the choice between the Indicative Mood and this or that particular form of unreality depends on the structure of the sentence, mainly on the type of the subordinate clause in which this form occurs, and in certain cases even on the lexical character of the predicate verb in the principal clause. This may be termed as the structurally dependent use of forms expressing unreality.

2. In other cases the choice is independent of the structure of the sentence and is determined by the attitude of the speaker to- wards the actions expressed in the sentence. This may be termed as the independent (or free) use of forms expressing unreality.

3. In a limited number of cases the use of forms expressing unreality has become a matter of tradition and is to be treated as set phrases, as other sentences cannot be built up on their pat- terns. This may be termed as the traditional use of forms ex- pressing unreality.

The following will be a description of forms expressing unreal- ity in accordance with this division.

Structurally Dependent Use of Forms Expressing Unreality

The Use of Forms Expressing Unreality in Object Clauses

§ 128. In object clauses the use of different forms of the predi- cate depends on the lexical character of the predicate verb in the principal clause.

As a rule, we find the Indicative Mood in object clauses after most verbs.

e.g. We know (that) he is doing very well in his studies. They thought (that) he had given up his idea. He said that he would soon be back.

As is well known, the rules of the sequence of tenses are to be observed here.

Note. Care should be taken to remember that in object clauses after expressions of regret, surprise, sometimes pleasure or displeasure the emotional should can be used alongside the Indicative Mood (see "Verbs", § 109, 2a).

§ 129. However, after certain verbs and expressions we find forms of unreality in object clauses.

Thus should + infinitive or the Subjunctive Mood is used after expressions of suggestion, order or decision such as to decide, to demand, to give instructions, to give orders, to insist, to make up one's mind, to move, to order, to propose, to recommend, to re quest, to require, to suggest, to urge and also after to arrange, to be anxious, to be determined, to prefer and to take care.

e.g. Con demanded that Andrew should return to the house with him to tea.

She urged that they go to Europe.

He had given instructions that everything possible should be done.

He was determined that they should see everything.

But if I write about war, self-respect demands that occasion- ally I share the risks.

He requested me as a favour that I should report to him any "points of interest" that I might pick up on my visits there.

The situation required that he be courteous.

In all those cases the action of the subordinate clause follows the action of the principal clause. Therefore, this should is never combined with the Perfect infinitive.

Object clauses after expressions of order and suggestion are generally introduced by the conjunction that; asyndetic connection is less frequent. The rules of the sequence of tenses are not ob- served in object clauses of this type.

e.g. They propose(d) that the issue should be discussed in a week. They propose(d) that the issue be discussed in a week.

§ 130. In object clauses subordinated to the principal clause with it as a formal subject we find the Indicative Mood after such expressions as it is wonderful (natural, strange, singular, absurd- terrible, monstrous, queer, odd, etc.) it infuriated (outraged- startled, surprised, puzzled) me and the like. The Indicative Mood is also used after it is possible (likely, probable) in affirmative sentences.

e.g. But it's natural that you come to get used to things. It's just possible that .he left them alone. It's wonderful that you carry such petty details in your head. It's hardly likely that anyone will bother to go into it this af- ternoon.

Clauses of this kind are usually introduced by the conjunction that; asyndetic connection is not common.

Care should be taken to observe the rules of the sequence of tenses when the Indicative Mood is used.

e.g. It is strange that he behaves like that. It was strange that he behaved like that. It is strange that he behaved like that at the party. It was strange that he had behaved like that at the party.

Note. As has been shown in § 109, 2, the emotional should may be used in the above cases too. In contrast to the Indicative Mood, it adds emotional colouring to the statements, though in both cases actual facts are referred to. However, after it is pos sible (likely, probable) in affirmative sentences the Indicative Mood is the rule.

§ 131. Yet, after certain other expressions in the principal clause the modal phrase should + infinitive or the Subjunctive Mood is always used in the object clause. They are expressions of necessity or recommendation, such as it is necessary (important, vital, imperative, essential, urgent, advisable, desirable); we also find these forms after the Passive Voice of some verbs expressing suggestion, order, decision, such as it is suggested (proposed, re- quired, demanded, requested, recommended, decided, agreed, deter- mined, arranged).

e.g. It is necessary at times that certain persons should be encour- aged.

"It is necessary that they be careful in the lab," he added.

It is advisable that she should have someone to keep an eye on her,

"It's so important that they should know the right things from the beginning," Isabel had explained.

It was agreed beforehand that he should have the first shot.

He says it's quite essential that you do it after supper.

It's been suggested that I should join one of the public ser- vices.

In all those cases the action of the subordinate clause follows the action of the principal clause. Therefore, should is never com- bined with the Perfect infinitive in such constructions.

As a rule, object clauses after all those predicates are also intro- duced by the conjunction that; asyndetic connection is not common.

Note that the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed when should + infinitive or the Subjunctive Mood is used.

e.g. It is arranged that he have (should have) the lab all to himself. It was arranged that he have (should have) the lab all to

himself.

§ 132. In object clauses after the verb to wish we find the form of the Past Indefinite (or the form were) or the Past Perfect to ex- press a wish which cannot be fulfilled or a hardly realizable wish.

e.g. I wish I deserved your compliments. I don't. I wish you had asked me anything but that. I wish it were true. I wished that Thomas hadn't brought me there.

Note. For a realizable wish other verbs and constructions are used,

e.g. I want to see him. I want him to come. I should like to talk to you. I should like him to call me up. I wish to see it for myself. I wish him to do something for me.

Object clauses after the verb to wish are usually joined to the principal clause asyndetically, though sometimes the conjunction that is found.

The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in this construction. In object clauses after the verb to wish the tense forms indicate the following:

a) The use of the Past Indefinite form shows that the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause,

e.g. I wish(ed) he were with us.

b) If the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause, the form of the Past Perfect is used.

e.g. I wish(ed) he had stayed at home.

c) When the action of the object clause follows that of the principal clause, we find the modal verbs would + infintive, might + infinitive and could + infinitive in the subordinate clause.

e.g. I wish(ed) the child would show more affection for me. I wish(ed) I could drop the whole matter. I wish(ed) you might stay with us a little longer.

Note 1. However, could + infinitive and might + infinitive may also be used to express a simultaneous action.

e.g. I wish 1 could understand you. I wish he might be here.

Note 2. It should be noted that would + infinitive is not common with the first person.

As all these forms express an unrealizable wish, they serve as expressions of regret rather than wish. That is why they may be rendered in Russian in two ways. Thus the sentence / wish I knew it, where the actions in both clauses are simultaneous, may be translated as Как бы мне хотелось это знать or Как жаль, что я этого не знаю. When the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause, there is only one way of ren- dering such sentences in Russian, namely Как жаль, что.. . For example, the sentence / wish I had told him about it is translated as Как жаль, что я не рассказал ему об этом. Thus, where the verb in the object clause is affirmative in English, it is negative in Russian, and vice versa.

e.g. I wish I had told him the truth. (Как жаль, что я не сказал

ему правды.) I wish I hadn't acted like that. (Как жаль, что я так поступил.)

When the action of the subordinate clause follows that of the principal clause, it is not necessary to translate the modal verbs into Russian; the usual way of rendering such sentences is Как бы

мне хотелось... .

e-g. I wish he would tell me everything. (Как бы мне хотелось,

чтобы он все мне рассказал.)

I wish I could (might) go round the world. (Как бы мне хоте- лось объехать весь мир.)

Note. I wish you would + infinitive has become a set phrase and is an equiva- lent of the Imperative Mood; it is emotionally coloured.

e.g. I wish you would keep quiet. I wish you would stop it.

Compare it with the Russian Да перестань же ты, наконец.

§ 133. After the idiomatic phrase it is time (also it is high time, it is about time) we find the form of the Past Indefinite (or the form were). e.g. "Now let's talk." "Yes," she said quietly, "it's time we did,

Arnie." (= пора бы) It's high time we got rid of our old furniture. (= давно пора

бы)

It's high time you were in bed too, my child. He said: "It's time we ordered dinner." Clauses of this kind are usually joined to the principal clause

asyndetically.

The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in this

kind of clauses.

e.g. It's time we had lunch. It was time we had lunch.

§ 134. After expressions of fear, such as to be afraid, to be fear- ful, to be frightened, to be in terror, to be nervous, to be terrified, to be troubled, to fear, to have apprehension, to tremble and others, we commonly find the Indicative Mood in the object clause. Care should be taken to observe the rules of the sequence of tenses.

e.g. I am afraid nothing has been done yet. She was afraid that he had seen her. I was afraid you were going to strike him.

§ 135. Occasionally we also find may + infinitive in object clauses after expressions of fear. The rules of the sequence of tenses are also observed in this case.

e.g. She's afraid he may miss his only chance.

She was afraid he might miss his only chance.

But in literary style, object clauses are sometimes introduced by the conjunction lest. In this case should + infinitive (rarely the Subjunctive Mood) is used in the object clause. The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed here.

e.g. They were terrified lest someone should discover their secret hiding place.

An hour before his train was due he began to have apprehen- sion lest he should miss it.

He seemed nervous lest, in thus announcing his intentions, he should be setting his granddaughter a bad example.