§ 235. Neither the infinitive nor the ing-form as subject is common in English, so the distinction between them is not very important for practical purposes.

The differentiation between the infinitive and the ing-form as subject is, on the one hand, determined by their respective tense and aspect characteristics — the infinitive tends to denote an ac- tion following that of the predicate verb (a), while the ing-form mainly serves to express an action simultaneous with that of the predicate verb (b).

e.g. a) To win the world's greatest cycling event became the ambi- tion of his life.

b) Beatrice and I don't correspond unless there is a major event in the family. Writing letters is a waste of time.

On the other hand, the choice between the infinitive and the ing-form is to a certain extent determined by the usage. Accord- ing to tradition, the ing-form is preferred in this function and the infinitive is by far less frequent. Sometimes, however, the use of the infinitive is required by an additional factor, namely the abili- ty of the infinitive to express the modal meaning of condition.

e.g. To go to them with an accusation would be absurd.

The Infinitive and the ing-form as Predicative

§ 236. As predicative, the infinitive and the ing-form may both have the same appositive meaning. The difference between them is mainly determined by tradition — the infinitive (a) is in common use in English whereas instances of the ing-form (b) are scarce.

e.g. a) The job of a reporter is to expose and to record.

All one could do was try to make the future less hard, b) The important part is helping people so that they can live normal lives.

Yet the infinitive is used only after the link-verb to be, while the ing-form. is found after other link-verbs, particularly to mean.

e.g. That would mean telling him everything.

Still another point of difference is that only an ing-form is used after to be like. The ing-form has appositive meaning here but the explanation is made by way of comparison.

e.g. Philip tries to direct his mind to the question but it is like trying to press the like poles of two magnets together. They push away.

The Infinitive and the ing-form as Object

§ 237. As an object of a verb, the infinitive and the ing -form are lexically dependent.

According to a well-established tradition, a number of verbs are followed by the infinitive (for the list see "Verbs', § 186), while certain other verbs require the use of the ing-form (for the list see "Verbs", § 214). Yet after a few verbs it is possible to use either of the two verbals.

The overlap in the use of the infinitive and the ing form is, however, caused by several reasons:

1) The head-verb is sometimes polysemantic and requires the use of the infinitive in one of its meanings while in another it must be followed by an ing-iorm. Here belong the verbs to try, to propose and to go on.

To try in the meaning of 'to make an effort or attempt¹ is used with an infinitive (a), while in the meaning of 'to test', 'to make an experiment' it is followed by an ing-form (b).

e.g. a) I'll try to do what I can.

Someone said, "We mustn't try to run before we can walk." b) The young writer, dissatisfied with the result of his work, tried altering words or the order in which they were set. As we couldn't understand his English he tried speaking French to us.

It should be noted, however, that to try is much more common in the meaning of 'to make an effort' and hence it is usually fol- lowed by the infinitive.

To propose in the meaning of 'to intend' is used with the infin- itive (a), while in the meaning of 'to put forward for consider- ation' it is followed by the ing-form (b),

e.g. a) Tell me more about how you propose to start your business.

He did not propose to forgive them this time, b) What do you propose doing?

To go on in the meaning of 'to do next or afterwards' requires an infinitive (a), whereas in the meaning of 'to continue' it is fol- lowed by an ing-form (b).

e.g. a) She went on to say that he was a man one could trust com- pletely.

The shopkeeper went on to explain that these little wood- en figures were by no means comparable to the mass- produced figures.

b) Tom went on talking.

But you can't go on living in this way any longer.

Note. The verb to mean in the meaning of 'to intend' is followed by an infini- tive (a). But when to mean is followed by an ing-form, it is a link-verb denoting 'to signify', 'to have as a consequence'. The ing-form is not an object in this case; it is used in the function of a predicative (b).

e.g. a) Do you mean to say he actually approves of it?

b) "To love a woman means giving up everything else," he said.

2) With certain other verbs the overlap in the use of the infin- itive and the ing-form is accounted for by their tense and aspect characteristics. This is found after the verbs to remember, to for- get and to regret. The infinitive expresses an action following that of the predicate verb (a), while the ing-form denotes a preceding action (b).

e.g. a) Bart remembered to count five before answering his father, b) I remember saying to him: "Look here, if anyone acted like you, the world couldn't go on."

1. I forgot to tell John about the party.

2. I shall never forget testifying in that trial twelve years

ago.

a) I regret to say it but you shouldn't believe everything he

tells you.

b) He regretted hurting her feelings.

It should be noted that owing to their lexical meaning the verbs to remember and to regret are in most cases followed by an ing-form. Conversely, with the verb to forget the situation gener- ally calls for an infinitive.

3) With some other verbs the infinitive and the ing-form seem to be interchangeable. These verbs are to begin, to cease, to con tinue, to dread, to hate, to intend, to like, to love, to neglect, to prefer and to start.

However, after to begin, to cease and to continue the infinitive is commonly found, while to start, to like and to hate are more of ten followed by an ing-form.

Note 1. Care should be taken to remember that there are other verbs in English denoting the beginning, the continuation or the end of an action which are associat- ed with only one of the two verbals. Thus, to commence and to set out are used with an infinitive. Yet to finish, to keep, to keep on, to leave off, and to set about take an ing-form.

Note 2. After the verb to stop the object is always expressed by an ing-form, e.g. She stopped speaking, as though waiting for him to speak.

The infinitive after to stop can serve only as an adverbial modifier of purpose. It is usually separated from the verb to stop by an object or an adverbial modifier.

e.g. As I stopped at the bar to have a drink I saw them talking it over.

If the infinitive happens to follow the head-verb immediately it is to be regard- ed as accidental. Examples of this kind are of rare occurrence.

e.g. I stopped to ask if you were better. They told me you were on duty.

Note 3. The infinitive and the ing-form may serve as object to verbs generally requiring a prepositional object. Normally the ing-form is used in this case. (For the list of verbs see "Verbs", §216.) However, after some verbs the ing-form is inter- changeable with the infinitive. These verbs are: to agree, to aim, to care, to hesi tate, to long, to plan and to threaten.

e.g. "I may as well plan on living in London for the rest of my life," said George. Everything you've planned to do is sensible. He was still hesitating about joining the expedition. They didn't hesitate to make free use of his purse.

Note 4. There have been a great many attempts to explain the difference in the use of the infinitive and the ing-form after the verbs given in this section. The in-

finitive has been described as referring to special, particular and concrete occasions or circumstances, as being more definite and lively in character and perfective in aspect. Conversely, the ing-form has been described as stating a general fact, repre- senting an action as permanent or more abstract, expressing a deliberate act and being imperfective in its aspect. However, none of the above explanations are borne out by living English usage. Moreover, some of the authors believe that it is unnec- essary to make formal distinctions between the two constructions.

§ 238. As an object of an adjective, the infinitive and the ing- iorm are lexically dependent. (For the lists see "Verbs", §§ 187 and 217.) Both verbals may be found after the following adjec- tives and adjectivized participles: afraid, amazed, annoyed, ashamed, astonished, careful, certain, content, fortunate, fright- ened, furious, happy, keen, proud, right, scared, set, slow, sorry, sure, surprised, touched and wrong. The ing form is always used as a prepositional object after them.

On the whole the choice between the infinitive and the ing- iorm after the above adjectives appears to be free.

Cf. I was touched to find my own name on the invitation list.

She couldn't allow herself to tell him how touched she was at finding him there.

Her coat was pulled tightly round her as if she were afraid to take it off.

Are you wanted by the police? You needn't be afraid of tell- ing me.

She is certain to get the names wrong. She is so careless.

"You look for trouble, don't you?" "Only because I'm certain of finding it."

I was just scared to leave it there.

I was scared to death at going there to speak.

She told me sternly how fortunate I was to be there in time.

I am very fortunate in having a wife who likes being a woman.

I was content to let things drift along just as they were.

I was fairly content with letting things go as they were.

She looked wonderfully and vividly alive, and I was proud to be with her.

But when I went to Germany I discovered that the Germans were just as proud of being Germans as I was proud of be- ing English.

The men were careful not to slip on the ice.

We were never very careful about taking precautions.

After certain of the above adjectives, however, the infinitive tends to express a single action following that of the predicate verb (a), while the ing-form is preferred when simultaneous or preceding actions are expressed (b).

e.g. a) In fact, I haven't the faintest idea what's been going on,

and I'm afraid to ask. b) I'm always afraid of getting caught.

1. I walked up and down the hall. I was afraid to go in.

2. Were you ever afraid of losing your mind?

a) Well, I'm sorry to disappoint you, but I won't be able to

use my car.

b) I'm sorry for coming like this, without being invited.

1. I thought that perhaps I should be wiser not to go.

2. I thought she wasn't very wise in telling us that.

Yet it should be pointed out that on the whole the infinitive is more common after all the above listed adjectives; the ing-form is somewhat literary in style.

The use of the infinitive and the ing-form with certain other adjectives is associated with a change of meaning of the adjec- tive. Here belong, for example, grateful, good, interested and some others.

e.g. a) The apples are good to eat (=the apples are good for eating), b) I'm not very good at driving (=I don't very well know how to drive).

a) At first he was grateful to have the play to read (=he was

pleased / happy to have...).

b) No one is grateful for being looked after (=no one feels

gratitude for being looked after).

a) I was interested to learn that it was the same cafe where

they had met (=it was interesting for me to learn...)

b) Somehow I was interested in getting back into that work

(=I was anxious to get...).

The Infinitive and the ing-form as Object in a Sentence Pattern with it as a Formal Subject