§ 244. The use of the infinitive and the ing-form in all the oth- er functions is not parallel and so they need not be compared.

The Use of the Participle

§ 245. The functions of the participle in the sentence are more restricted as compared with those of the infinitive and the ing- iorm. Besides, it tends to become adjectivized even in the func- tions that it can perform in the sentence. (For the adjectivization of the participle see "Verbs", § 179.)

The participle cannot be used either as the subject or as the predicate of the sentence. When it is used as predicative, it is al- ways adjectivized and may be preceded, like a real adjective, by ad- verbs of degree, such as extremely, greatly, so, too, very and the correlative conjunctions as ... as and not so ... as.

e.g. Three of the girls were given to giggling.

Roger was set on getting the job himself.

Strickland was distinguished from most Englishmen by his perfect indifference to comfort.

We lived in the same neighbourhood and we felt friendly dis- posed to one another.

"I was cold but too excited to mind it.

I've never been so deceived in a man as I was in George.

If anyone lived there he would be as scared as we were.

I am naturally very disappointed.

It should be mentioned that if participles were not adjectiv- ized in this case, they would form, with the verb to be, the Pas- sive Voice.

Note. Some adjectivized participles, however, can be modified, like verbs, by (very) much. This may be accounted for by their verbal origin.

e.g. If Tony expected her to rush into his arms he was very much mistaken.

In a day or two the answer came back that he was very much opposed to the whole scheme.

It follows from what has been said that the participle proper (i.e. the participle which is not adjectivized) cannot be used as predicative.

The Participle as Part of a Compound Verbal Predicate

§ 246. One of the functions in which the participle proper is used, is part of a compound verbal predicate. The participle is lexically dependent in this function — it is found after the in- transitive verbs to lie, to sit and to stand which denote position.

e.g. He stood surprised in front of his house.

The smoke drifted away and the camp lay revealed. He was lying back relaxed in his chair. Joe sat hunched in a corner of the seat.

Examples of this kind are of rare occurrence, and the participle may be adjectivized here too.

The Participle as a Second Action Accompanying the Action of the Predicate Verb

§ 247. The participle may express a second action accom- panying the action of the predicate verb. The second action is pas- sive in meaning and, hence, it shows that the person indicated by the grammatical subject of the sentence undergoes the action de- noted by the participle.

With terminative verbs, the participle in this function indi- cates an action that precedes the action of the predicate verb, e.g. Asked when they could expect an answer, the clerk said it

would take them about a week.

Shocked by the poverty of my own vocabulary, I went to the British Museum library.

with durative verbs, the participle expresses an action simul- taneous with that of the predicate verb, e.g. He stood there, drinking tomato juice, surrounded by people absorbing the radiation of his power. Then I saw my mother. She sat by the window, lighted up by the setting sun. The participle in this function may be found in different posi- tions in the sentence, e.g. Suddenly touched, the girl came over to the side of his chair and kissed his cheek. I went out of the court determined to show them a good play.

This participle is characteristic of literary English.

The Participle as Subjective Predicative § 248. The participle may be used as subjective predicative. It is lexically dependent in this function and is used after the pas- sive of the verbs to find, to hear, to see and to make.

e.g. Then he was found barricaded in a little hut.

A minute ago he was seen engaged in a lively conversation with a charming girl.

Note. To be made known is treated as a set phrase. e.g. I'm afraid this information will have to be made known.

Examples of this kind are of rare occurrence and the participle is often adjectivized.

The Participle as Objective Predicative

§ 249. The participle is also used as objective predicative. It is lexically dependent in this function and found after a number of transitive verbs followed by a direct object which is expressed by ^a noun or a pronoun. These verbs are: to believe, to consider, to feel, to find, to get, to have, to hear, to keep, to leave, to like, to make, to see, to think, to want, to watch and the set phrases won't like, won't have and should/would like.

e.g. On arriving at the cottage she found it locked.

Despite himself, Maurice felt his attention caught. You'll never guess where I had the suit made. But even if you work hard it takes a long time to write a nov- el. And you have to get it published. I said I had not heard the matter mentioned. "I want it proved," he roared. I would like it done right away.

The (passive) subject of the participle in this function is the object of the sentence (see also "Verbs", § 174).

The Participle as Adverbial Modifier

§ 250. The participle may serve as adverbial modifier of a verb. In this function it denotes a second action accompanying the action of the predicate verb. In this case it is preceded by a con- junction which lends it adverbial meaning such as time, conces- sion, condition and comparison. The most commonly occurring of the conjunctions are: when, till, until, once, as, if, unless, though, as though, even if and even when.

The participle is not lexically dependent in this function — it can be used after any verb.

e.g. She's a terror when roused.

Once arrived at the quay alongside which lay the big transat- lantic liner, the detective became brisk and alert.

Soames, privately, and as a businessman, had always so con- ducted himself that if cornered, he need never tell a direct untruth.

He did not usually utter a word unless spoken to.

He had till Sunday evening to think it over; for even if post- ed now the letter could not reach John till Monday.

Here the tram lines ended, so that men returning home could doze in their seats until roused by their journey's end.

"Does he know it?" said David Rubin, as though surprised.

The subject of the action expressed by the participle in the above function is the same person or thing as denoted by the sub- ject of the sentence.

Note 1. Notice the set phrase come to that ('кстати', 'уж если об этом зашла речь').

e.g. "But who is to be the judge of a man's fitness or unfitness?" "You'd have to have a scientific man as judge. Come to that, I think you'd be a pretty good judge yourself."

Note 2. Some participles have actually come to be used as conjunctions. e.g. Roger could be re-elected provided he received the 290 votes from his own side.

§ 251. The participle may be part of an absolute construction. In this case it has a subject of its own. The participle serves to indicate a resultant state which is parallel to the action of the predicate verb.

Absolute constructions may be non-prepositional and preposi- tional. In the latter case they are introduced by the preposition with.

The main function of the absolute construction with the parti- ciple is to describe the appearance, behaviour or inner state of the person denoted by the subject of the sentence. In other words, it serves as an adverbial modifier of descriptive circumstances. This function can be performed by absolute constructions, non-preposi- tional (a) and prepositional (b).

e.g. a) In the library Diana, her face flushed, talked to a young

dramatist.

We sat silent, her eyes still fixed on mine. She got up, the clothes folded over her arm. b) She stood with her arms folded, smoking, staring thought- fully.

He sat with his knees parted turning his wrists vaguely. I lay idly in a big chair, talking now and then, listening; listening sometimes with my eyes closed.

A peculiar feature of non-prepositional absolute constructions with the participle is that sometimes the nouns in them are used without any article.

e.g. She advanced two more strides and waited, head half turned. The President listened to her, standing at the fire-place, head

bowed, motionless. Joel sat scrunched in a corner of the seat, elbow propped on

window frame, chin cupped in hand, trying hard to keep

awake.

Absolute constructions with the participle are usually found

in literary style.

Note. Notice the set phrase all things considered. e.g. All things considered, there is little hope of their withdrawal.

The Participle as Attribute