§ 166. The infinitive and the ing-iorm, like the finite forms, are always associated with a subject but the way their subject is expressed differs greatly from that of the finite forms.

Since the finite forms have the function of the predicate in the sentence, their subject is always the grammatical subject of the sentence. But the subject of the verbals may be expressed differ- ently.

In a number of functions the subject of the verbals is the same as the subject of the sentence and, consequently, of the fi- nite verb.

e.g. He struggled to find the first words of his story.

She wasn't used to being miserable without doing something about it.

But in certain other functions the subject of the verbal is fre- quently expressed by some secondary parts of the sentence.

e.g. He gave her permission to leave.

Seeing you there, by the door, made me remember what I

had to do. For the most part she was silent, the effort of speaking was

too much for her.

Moreover, the subject of the infinitive and the ing-form may be found in a neighbouring clause or even in a different sentence.

e.g. She told him what a wonderful place it was to take her to.

There was a vast useless stretch of time to fill. I occupied my mind with the memories of my childhood.

Starting this relationship seems to me one of the better things you've ever done, however it ends.

"You won't do the same thing again, will you?" "I can't ex- plain, but having done it just once is enough."

In all the above cases the relation between the action of the verbal and its subject becomes clear from the context as the sub- ject is not expressed by any grammatical means.

Occasionally the subject of the verbal is not indicated at all — it is not found either in the sentence itself or in a wider context. In this case it is understood as any or every person or as an indefi- nite number of unidentified persons.

e.g. Knowledge is not something to boast about. Writing good prose is not easy.

Finally, a verbal may have a subject of its own, specially ex- pressed in the sentence. The way the subject is expressed is differ- ent in this case for the infinitive and for the ing-form.

The subject of the infinitive is expressed by a noun or an in- definite pronoun in the common case or by a personal pronoun in the objective case. It precedes the infinitive and the whole con- struction is introduced by the preposition for. e.g. I'm not going to make a spectacle of myself for people to talk

about.

For a bachelor to have such well-trained servants was a prov- ocation to the women of the district.

It was rare for him to go out to dinner.

He was too embarrassed for us to ask him about anything.

This kind of construction is called the for-phrase.

The subject of the ing-form may be expressed in four different ways: by means of a possessive pronoun (a), a personal pronoun in the objective case (b), a noun in the genitive case (c) and a noun or an indefinite pronoun in the common case (d).

e.g. a) I appreciate your coming to my defense.

b) I just couldn't complain about him and be the cause of him

losing the job.

3. Do you recall Richard's doing that?

4. She was worried by a stranger staring at her from a dark

corner.

The ing-form with its subject is called the ing-complex.

But the four complexes differ with regard to the frequency of their occurrence and their stylistic colouring.

Possessive pronouns are in current use, whereas the use of per- sonal pronouns in the objective case is less frequent and distinctly colloquial. Conversely, we generally find nouns in the common case while nouns in the genitive case are by far less common and main- ly typical of literary style.

Note. Note the pattern in which the subject of the ing-form is introduced by there. e.g. We spoke about there being no one at the moment for him to turn to for help'

Verbals, like the finite forms, can be used in the active and in the passive. Accordingly, their subject may be either the doer (agent) of the action expressed by the verbal or may undergo this action, be acted upon.

e.g. I have not come here to be insulted but to talk to you as a

friend.

I watched her for a little while without being seen. He left us without saying good-bye.

The two different kinds of subject may be called the active subject and the passive subject of the infinitive or of the ing- iorm.