§ 4. With uncountable nouns, the indefinite article serves to bring out a special aspect of the notion expressed by the noun. In this case its function may be called aspective.

e.g. A dull burning anger rose in his chest. He had almost a supernatural courage.

In this case the noun is usually qualified by an attribute which also brings out a special aspect. In its aspective function the indef- inite article is devoid of the idea of oneness.

The Definite Article

§ 5. When used with countable nouns, either concrete or ab- stract, the definite article has two distinct functions:

1) It may be used with singular and plural nouns to show that the noun denotes a particular object (a thing, a person, an animal or an abstract notion) or a group of objects as distinct from the others of the same kind. In other words, the definite article serves to single out an object or several objects from all the other objects of the same class. This function is called the individualizing func- tion of the definite article.

e.g. The car stopped. Paul got out and stretched himself.

As we stood on the steps, we felt the smell of fallen leaves

coming from the garden. Margot took up the telephone.

2) The definite article may also have the generic function with countable nouns. With nouns in the singular it serves to indicate that the noun becomes a composite image of the class.

e.g. The tiger has always had the reputation of being a man-eater. The linguist is interested in the form and meaning of all pos- sible statements in a language.

§6. With uncountable nouns, the function of the definite arti- cle may be called restricting.

The definite article restricts the material denoted by a concrete uncountable noun to a definite quantity, portion or to a definite locality (a); it also restricts the abstract notion expressed by an uncountable noun to a particular instance (b).

e.g. a) He slowly pulled on his gloves, concentrating on each fold

in the leather.

As we came out into the cold damp air, she shivered, b) The work seemed to consist chiefly of interviewing young

women for jobs in department stores. I did not wish to betray the anxiety I felt.

Absence of the Article (the Zero Article)

§ 7. The absence of the article (the zero article) has only one function with common nouns — the nominating function.

This function of the zero article may be found with countable nouns in the plural; it is parallel to the use of the indefinite arti- cle with singular countable nouns. But while the indefinite article is associated with the idea of oneness, the zero article always im- plies more-than-oneness.

e.g. Marion came round the corner of the house, wearing garden- ing gloves and a very old skirt.

My mother gave me some pennies to buy apples or a magazine.

She had a splitting headache and took an aspirin and sleep- ing pills.

The nominating function of the zero article is also found with uncountable nouns, both abstract and concrete (names of materials).

e.g. Last night I felt friendship and sympathy for Henry, but to- day he has become an enemy. Life goes on, changeless and ever changing. Winterbourne asked for water and drank thirstily.

THE USE OF ARTICLES WITH COUNTABLE NOUNS

General Rules for the Use of Articles with Countable Nouns

§ 8. Countable nouns in the singular may be used with the in- definite article in its nominating function and with the definite ar ticle in its individualizing function.

e.g. They couldn't travel without a car there.

While her suit-case was being taken out of the car, she looked

round.

He shut the door behind his wife and handed me a cigar. I didn't enjoy the cigar because it was damp.

In the plural, countable nouns may be used without any article . or with the definite article. The absence of the article has nominat- ing force and the definite article is used in its individualizing function.

e.g. They couldn't travel without cars there.

While their suit-cases were being taken out of the cars, they

looked round.

He shut the door behind his wife and handed us cigars. We didn't enjoy the cigars because they were damp.

Note. Note the use of the noun things in the meaning 'circumstances', 'condi- tions', 'events in general', 'the present state of affairs'. It is used without any ar- ticle in this meaning.

e.g. Your refusal will only make things worse. Things aren't going very well at the firm. I told him that you've let things slide for long enough. Your father is making a mess of things. You take things too seriously. I must think things over.

§ 9. Since the choice of articles is determined by the context or the general situation, we should take into consideration attributes modifying the noun as they constitute part of the context. At- tributes are generally divided into two classes: limiting and de- scriptive.

A limiting attribute indicates such a quality or characteristic of an object (or a group of objects) which makes it distinct from all other objects of the class.

e.g. She lost her temper: 'It's the most unpleasant thing you've

ever told me." She sat listening but the sound of her pounding heart covered

any other sound. Alice smiled to him and took the letter he held out to her.

A descriptive attribute is used to describe an object (or a group of objects) or give additional information about it. This kind of at- tribute does not single out an object (or a group of objects) but only narrows the class to which it belongs.

e.g. He wrote a novel.

He wrote a good novel.

He wrote a good historical novel.

In the above examples a good novel belongs to a narrower class than a novel, and a good historical novel belongs to a still narrow- er class.

We find the same in:

e.g. He smiled at the girl as she came down the stairs wearing a

red raincoat with a hood.

To the left there was a long room with a narrow table strewn with periodicals.

Nouns modified by limiting attributes are used with the def- inite article.

Nouns modified by descriptive attributes may be used with ei- ther the indefinite or the definite articles, as the choice of articles for countable nouns is not affected by this kind of attribute.

But the division of attributes into two classes is not very helpful for practical purposes, since most attributes are not limiting or de- scriptive by nature. Taken by themselves, they are neutral, and it is only in the context that they acquire limiting or descriptive force.

e.g. He was going to build a new house.

Shortly after he moved to the new house, he fell ill. We shall take a road going through the forest as it won't be so hot there.

We shall take the road going through the forest as it is a short cut.

The above examples show that attributes as such cannot gen- erally be regarded as reliable criteria for the choice of articles.

Nevertheless we find a number of attributes which are distinct- ly limiting owing to their form of expression. In order to set them apart, we must survey the use of articles with countable nouns modified by all types of attributes.