§224. The ing-form may be preceded by the conjunctions while, when, once, if, as though, as if, though, than, as well as and the correlative conjunctions as...As and not so...As.

While and when lend the ing-form the adverbial meaning of time, emphasizing the idea of simultaneousness of its action with that of the predicate verb. While shows that both actions are tak- ing place at a given moment or period of time (a); when usually serves to express recurrent actions simultaneous with the action of the predicate verb (b).

e.g. a) He continued to speak while walking down the path.

The photograph showed himself, shielding his eyes against

the sun while sitting on a swing.

b) She picked up Butler's heavy spectacles which she em- ployed always when reading and put them on. Often, when boasting of his deceits, he sounded childlike and innocent.

The conjunctions as though and as if serve to show that the person denoted by the subject of the sentence appears to be per- forming the action indicated by the ing-iorm: there is something in the manner or in the behaviour of the person that gives the im- pression that the action is being performed by him/her.

e.g. Lena gave me a very long look indeed as though seeing me

for the first time. Much of the afternoon I looked out of the window, as though

thinking, but not really thinking. He listened as though brooding. She stopped speaking as if waiting for him to speak.

The use of the other conjunctions is infrequent.

e.g. Himself a man of little or no education, though possessing

remarkable shrewdness, he placed little value on what he

called book knowledge.

He always dropped in if passing by their house on a wet night. I've got a comfortable home to take you to, and you'll be your

own mistress, which is much better than being in service. Mary brought in the coffee and when she had gone he inhaled

the steam of it. It was as good as drinking it. Nothing is so dangerous as being too modern.

The use of the ing-form in this function is found mainly in lit- erary style and even there it is not frequent.

Note. The ing-form may acquire adverbial meaning even when it is not preced- ed by a conjunction. But this use of the ing-form is still less frequent. For example, in the sentences below the ing-form has the following meanings:

cause — Seeing their uneasiness Mrs Norris softened and smiled.

Knowing he could not go to Alice he tried to telephone her. time — I know we shall break our necks one night walking across the field, manner — They walked by the lake holding hands.

concession — But why did he marry her, feeling as he did about everything? condition — Oh, do go upstairs, Lizzy! You'll only catch a cold, hanging around the passage.

§ 225. The ing-form may be preceded by the prepositions after, before, besides, by, except for, for fear of, for the sake of, from, in, instead of, on, on the verge of, through, without and some others The most frequently used of them is without showing that an ac- tion which may be logically expected to accompany the action of the predicate verb does not take place.

e.g. The bus passed us without stopping.

In a mutter he thanked her without raising his eyes. I watched her for a little while without being seen. Then he left us without saying good-bye.

As is seen from the above examples, the ing-form is placed af- ter the predicate verb. Its position at the beginning of the sentence or between the subject and predicate, though possible, is unusual.

e.g. Slowly, without turning his head, he pulled himself to a half- sitting position.

Roger, without turning to me, said in a curt, flat and even tone, "There may possibly be trouble."

A synonymous construction with not preceding an ing-iorm does not imply the idea that the action is logically expected. Like any other ing-iorm, it simply denotes a second action. Only in this case it is in the negative form (see "Verbs", § 213).

e.g. I returned to the drawing-room, and stood preoccupied, not noticing acquaintances about the room, with my back to the fire.

We had both sat for a long time, not speaking; in the quiet I knew she was not reading.

The ing-form preceded by not is typical of literary style, whereas the ing-form preceded by without is in common use in lit- erary as well as in spoken English.

Another frequently occurring preposition which may precede the ing-form is by. In this case the action denoted by the ing-iorm expresses a means or a method of performing the action of the predicate verb. It may also indicate the manner in which the action of the predicate verb is carried out.

e.g. You begin learning a language by listening to the new sounds. He greeted me noisily, but I cut him short by giving him the

telegram.

I don't want to distress her by telling her that you have be- haved like a cad.

"I have my dignity to think of." "One often preserves that best by putting it in one's pocket."

This ing-form is generally placed after the predicate verb, though its front position is occasionally possible.

e.g. By keeping quiet, she might save herself a lot of trouble.

The ing-form introduced by instead of is also in common use. It is characterized by a clear-cut meaning, owing to the preposition

itself. Its position with regard to the predicate verb is not fixed.

e.g. Why do you tuck your umbrella under your left arm instead

of carrying it in your hand like anything else? You positively help them instead of hindering them.

He bought pictures instead of buying me the things I wanted. I persuaded my uncle that it would be very good for my

lungs if instead of staying at school I spent the following

winter on the Riviera.

The use of the ing-form with other prepositions is less common.

The ing-forms following the prepositions before, after and on express time relations between the action of the predicate verb and that of the ing-form.

Before shows that the action expressed by the ing-form follows that of the predicate verb. It is usually placed in post-position to the predicate verb.

e.g. He waited a long while before answering.

He had given her two pots of geraniums before leaving for

London last week. They were sitting there now before going out to dinner.

After indicates that the action expressed by the ing-form pre- cedes the action expressed by the predicate verb.

e.g. After glancing at his watch he said, in a businesslike tone:

"You've made me a bit late." After staying away eighteen years he can hardly expect us to

be very anxious to see him. But after hesitating a moment or two, Jiggs knocked on the

door.

On expresses the same relations as after. But on emphasizes the idea of an immediate succession of the two actions — the ac- tion of the predicate verb begins at the moment the action of the ing-form is accomplished. It is noteworthy that we find only the ing-forms of terminative verbs here.

e.g. On arriving at the cottage she found it locked.

On getting up in the morning I found a letter on my doorstep Mr Doyle came in as a man at home there, but on seeing the stranger he shrank at once.

As is seen from the above examples, the ing-form, introduced by after and on is usually placed before the predicate verb.

The meaning of the ing-form introduced by in is not so clear- cut. It may be defined as limiting the sphere of application for

the action denoted by the predicate verb or as indicating a process during which the action of the predicate verb is performed.

e.g. I've done something rather foolish in coming here tonight, I regret it.

In defending myself against this lady, I have a right to use

any weapon I can find. I daresay you have noticed that in speaking to you I have

been putting a very strong constraint on myself. The place of the ing-form preceded by in is not fixed. The use of ing-forms introduced by other prepositions is still less frequent. We find various prepositions here.

e.g. It was a lesson he had learned from having seen so many acci- dents.

I found that besides being a philosopher he was an uncommonly good writer.

We talked in whispers for fear of disturbing the Smiths. It was very quiet in the wood except for our feet breaking twigs.

They were political link-men who added to their incomes through leaking secret information to the press.

As for staying with your uncle for a while, I'm convinced you'll enjoy every minute of it.

It should be noted that the use of the ing-form described above is stylistically neutral — it is found in literary as well as in spo- ken English. However, care should be taken to remember that ing- forms preceded by after, before and on are not in common use. Adverbial clauses of time are much more frequent.

Note. Note that in the following sentences we are dealing with set phrases: e.g. He said in passing that money didn't matter much, since his wife was so rich.

They were to do nothing for the time being.

It goes without saying that healthy men are happier than sick men.

(For comparison with the infinitive see § 195-201.)

§226. The subject of the ing-form in the adverbial functions described above is the same person or thing as denoted by the sub- ject of the sentence. But the ing-form may have a subject of its own with which it forms the so-called absolute construction.

e.g. He gave an intimate smile, some of the freshness returning

to his face. His study was a nice room with books lining the walls.

There are two parallel actions in this sentence pattern — one of them is expressed by the predicate verb, the other by the ing- iorm. Each action has its own subject.

Absolute constructions may be of two kinds: non-prepositional and prepositional, introduced by the preposition with. They are both lexically independent.

The non-prepositional construction and the prepositional con- struction are synonymous.

Absolute constructions, while serving to denote a second ac- tion parallel to that of the predicate verb, acquire at the same time adverbial meanings and thereby stand in specific relations to the main part of the sentence.

The most commonly occurring meaning of the absolute con- struction is to describe the appearance, the behaviour or inner state characterizing the person denoted by the subject of the sen- tence. Non-prepositional (a) as well as prepositional (b) construc- tions serve this purpose. This meaning of the absolute construc- tion may be called descriptive circumstances.

e.g. a) Finally she stood back and looked at him, her face radiant- ly smiling.

"But it's so ridiculous that we don't know what to do," William told them, his voice rising in indignation.

She kept on running, her heart thumping furiously, her

steps quickening in pace with her heartbeats, b) The man was leaning forward in his seat, with his head resting in his hands.

He struggled on, panting for breath, and with his heart beating wildly.

He went into the house, with a curious sadness pressing upon him.

Another meaning of the absolute construction is to describe the circumstances attending the action of the predicate verb, serving as its background, as it were. It may also be expressed by non-prepositional (a) and prepositional (b) constructions.

e.g. a) When we entered the sitting-room she was sitting with her sister before an open fire-place, the glow of a lamp with a red-flowered shade warmly illuminating the room. Then they were out in the cold night, fresh snow crunch- ing noisily underfoot.

b) The night was clean, with a new moon silvering the trees along the road and an energetic wind tidying away the clouds. With a hurricane approaching, we prepared to stand a seige.

Absolute constructions may acquire the adverbial meaning of cause, when the action denoted by the absolute construction indi- cates the cause of the action denoted by the predicate verb. This meaning is also expressed by non-prepositional constructions (a) and prepositional constructions (b).

e.g. a) Death being contrary to their principles, the Forsytes took

precautions against it.

A room lit up on the third storey, someone working late, b) I can't write with you standing there.

By twelve o'clock, with the sun pouring into the room, the heat became oppressive.

Finally, absolute constructions can serve as some kind of addi- tional explanation of the statement made in the main part of the sentence. In this case the absolute construction acquires more se- mantic independence — it seems to be on a par with the predicate verb. This meaning is mainly expressed by the non-prepositional construction.

e.g. Everyone in the house was busy: Nessie frowning over her les- sons, Mumma deeply engaged in her novel, Grandma sleep- ing in her armchair.

There were two serious accidents in the West Country, one in- volving a coach and a car.

English words can be classed as variable and invariable, the latter being much more numerous than in the other Euro- pean languages.

Absolute constructions are generally characteristic of literary style where their use is quite extensive. In spoken English we mainly find the prepositional absolute construction. (For comparison with the infinitive see § 202.)

The ing-form as Attribute