§ 1. Adjectives are words expressing properties and char- acteristics of objects (e.G. Large, blue, simple, clever, wooden, eco- nomic, progressive, etc.) and, hence, qualifying nouns.

Grammatically, four features are generally considered to be characteristic of adjectives:

1. their syntactic function of attribute,

2. their syntactic function of predicative,

3. their taking of adverbial modifiers of degree (e.g. very),

4. their only grammatical category — the degrees of com- parison. (Adjectives in English do not change for number or case.)

However, not all adjectives possess all of the four features. For example, Features 3 and 4 neither distinguish adjectives from adverbs, nor are found in all adjectives.

Furthermore, there are adjectives that function both attribu- tively and predicatively (e.g. He is my young brother. My brother is young yet.). And there are also adjectives that function only at- tributively (e.g. a mere child, a sheer waste, an utter fool) or only predicatively (e.g. glad, able, afraid, alike, alive, etc.).

Formation of Adjectives

§ 2. Many adjectives are formed from other parts of speech by adding different suffixes the most common of which are:

-able: comfortable, preferable, reliable -ible: sensible, visible, susceptible -ant: elegant, predominant, arrogant -ent: dependent, intelligent, innocent -al: cultural, musical, medical -ic: atomic, scientific, heroic -ish: childish, foolish, brownish

-ive: attractive, expensive, talkative -ful: careful, useful, skilful -less: careless, helpless, useless -ly: brotherly, deadly, friendly -ous; dangerous, curious, anxious -y: dirty, dusty, sleepy

In English there is also a large number of adjectives ending in -ing and -erf.

e.g. His answer was (very) surprising. The man felt (very) offended.

Such adjectives are former ing-forms which have become ad-

jectivized, i.e. they have, partly or completely, lost their verbal force and acquired some or all of the features of adjectives (see "Adjectives", § 1: "Verbs" §§ 172, 179).

e.g. Mike made an interesting report. The film was (very) interesting.

I should say it was the most interesting film of the year. He is a disappointed old man.

He felt (very) disappointed when nobody answered his call. I found him more disappointed than I had expected.

Sometimes it is the context that helps to understand whether we are dealing with a verbal form or an adjective.

I don't like her. (adj.)

Cf. She is calculating.

Don t disturb her. (verb)

to find her at home, (adj.)

They were relieved by the officer on duty, (verb)

Sometimes the difference between the adjective and the verbal form is not clear-cut and lies in the verbal force retained by the latter. The verbal force is explicit for the ing-form when a direct object is present.

e.g. His words were alarming his parents. You are frightening me.

Similarly, the verbal force is explicit for the participle when a by-phrase is present.

e.g. The black man was offended by the policeman. She was misunderstood by her friends.

(For more of this see "Verbs", §§ 227, 245).

Classification of Adjectives

§ 3. The actual application of adjectives is often, explicitly or implicitly, connected with their semantic characteristics. So it ap- pears reasonable to divide adjectives into semantic groups each of which has its own possibilities or restrictions.

I. As has been said in § 1, most adjectives can be used both at- tributively and predicatively. They are central to this part of speech, as it were.

Besides, there are adjectives that can be used only attributively.

To this group belong:

1) intensifying adjectives:

1. emphasizers (giving a general heightening effect): a clear failure, a definite loss, plain nonsense, a real hero, the simple truth, a true scholar, a sure sign, etc.

2. amplifiers (denoting a high or extreme degree): a complete victory, total nonsense, the absolute truth, a great scholar, a strong opponent, utter stupidity, the entire world, etc.

3. downtoners (having a lowering effect): a slight misun- derstanding, a feeble reason, etc.

2. restrictive adjectives (which restrict the reference to the noun exclusively, particularly or chiefly): the exact answer, the main reason, his chief excuse, a particular occasion, the precise information, the principal objection, the specific point, etc.

3. adjectives related to adverbial expressions: a former friend (—> formerly a friend), a possible opponent (—> possibly an oppo- nent), the present leader (—> the leader at present), an occasional visitor (-> occasionally a visitor), an apparent defeat (—> apparently a defeat), the late president (—> till lately the president).

4. adjectives formed from nouns: a criminal lawyer, an atomic student, a woollen dress, etc.

Adjectives that can be used only predicatively are fewer in number. They tend to refer to a (possibly temporary) condition rather than to characterize the noun. The most commonly used predicative adjectives are: able, conscious, fond, glad, ill, subject,

{un)well; ablaze, afloat, afraid, aghast, alight, alike, alive, alone, ashamed, asleep, averse, awake, aware.

II. Adjectives are generally stative (see also "Verbs", § 2). Many of them, however, may be treated as dynamic. Stative and

dynamic adjectives differ in some ways, e.g. the link-verb to be in combination with dynamic adjectives can have the continuous form or be used in the imperative mood.

e.g. He is being careful. She is being vulgar.

Be careful! Don't be vulgar!

Stative adjectives do not admit of such forms (e.g. *He is be- ing tall. *Be tall!).

To the group of dynamic adjectives belong: adorable, am- bitious, awkward, brave, calm, careful, careless, cheerful, clever, complacent, conceited, cruel, disagreeable, dull, enthusiastic, ex- travagant, foolish, friendly, funny, generous, gentle, good, greedy, hasty, helpful, irritating, jealous, kind, lenient, loyal, mischievous, naughty, nice, noisy, (im)patient, reasonable, rude, sensible, seri- ous, shy, slow, spiteful, stubborn, stupid, suspicious, tactful, talk- ative, thoughtful, tidy, timid, troublesome, vain, vulgar, wicked, witty, etc.

e.g. I'm sure Nick will understand that it's only for his own good

that you're being so unkind.

In those days a woman did not contradict a man's opinion when he was being serious.

III. Adjectives are also distinguished as gradable and non- gradable. Most adjectives are gradable. That means that they can

be modified by adverbs of degree and themselves change for de- grees of comparison.

e.g. Your niece is so (very, extremely, too) young. Tom is stronger than Father. He is the strongest in the family. All dynamic adjectives are gradable; most stative adjectives are gradable, too. Degrees of Comparison § 4. There are three degrees of comparison: positive, com- parative and superlative.

The positive form Is the plain stem of an adjective (e.g. heavy, slow, straight, extravagant, etc.)

There are two methods of forming the comparative and the su- perlative degrees: 1) by adding the suffixes -er and -est, and 2) by using more and most before the adjective.

The first method is used for:

a) monosyllabic adjectives,

e.g. new — newer — newest

bright — brighter — brightest

b) disyllabic adjectives ending in -er, ow, -y, or -le,

e.g. clever — cleverer — cleverest

narrow — narrower — narrowest happy — happier — happiest simple — simpler — simplest

c) disyllabic adjectives with the stress on the second syllable,

e.g. polite — politer — politest

complete — completer — completest

d) a few frequently used disyllabic adjectives,

e.g. common — commoner — commonest pleasant — pleasanter — pleasantest quiet — quieter — quietest

The following spelling rules should be observed in forming the comparative and the superlative:

a) adjectives ending in -y preceded by a consonant, change the -y into -ier and -iest,

e.g. heavy — heavier — heaviest

But adjectives ending in -y preceded by a vowel, remain un- changed, e.g. gay — gayer — gayest

b) monosyllabic adjectives with a short vowel double their fi- nal consonants,

e.g. big ~ bigger — biggest

thin — thinner — thinnest

But monosyllabic adjectives ending in a double consonant, re- main unchanged,

e.g. thick — thicker — thickest fresh — fresher — freshest

c) adjectives with a mute -e at the end, add only -r and -st, e.g. pale — paler — palest

The second method is used for:

a) most disyllabic adjectives,

e.g. careful — more careful — most careful private — more private — most private

b) adjectives of more than two syllables,

e.g. personal — more personal — most personal beautiful — more beautiful — most beautiful

c) adjectives formed from participles and ing-forms,

e.g. tired — more tired —- most tired

interesting — more interesting — most interesting

d) adjectives used only predicatively,

e.g. afraid — more afraid aware — more aware

The superlative degree of predicative adjectives in (d) is hard-ly ever used in English.

Note. Care should be taken to remember that most when used before an adjec- tive does not always form the superlative degree. It may have the meaning of 'very', 'extremely⁷. Then it is preceded by the indefinite article.

e.g. He was a most interesting man.

A few adjectives have irregular forms for the degrees of com- parison. They are:

good — better — best bad — worse — worst far — farther — farthest (for distance)

further — furthest (for time and distance) near — nearer — nearest (for distance) next (for order)

late — later — latest (for time) last (for order)

old — older — oldest (for age)

elder — eldest (for seniority rather than age; used only attrib- utively)

Non-gradable adjectives, on account of their meaning, do not admit of comparison at all, e.g. daily, empty, full, perfect, round, square, unique, upper, wooden and some others.

The comparative degree is used when there are two objects, actions or phenomena compared or contrasted, e.g. She had the kind of heart trouble that comes to much older

people.

He found the work easier than he had expected. I was now a more experienced man and it was not easy to de- ceive me. His reading was more extensive than ever before.

The superlative degree is used when an object, an action or a phenomenon is compared or contrasted with more than two ob- jects, actions or phenomena, e.g. At that time I worshipped Manet. His "Olympia" seemed to

me the greatest picture of modern times. She was the most active of us. Note the following sentence patterns in which comparison is

expressed:

a) comparison of equality (as ... as),

e.g. The boy was as sly as a monkey.

When he had left Paris, it was as cold as in winter there.

b) comparison of inequality (not so ... as, not as ... as), e.g. The sun is not so hot today as I thought it would be.

You are not as nice as people think.

c) comparison of superiority (...-er than, -est of/in/ever),

e.g. He looked younger than his years.

"You're much more interested in my dresses than my dress- maker," she said. My mother was the proudest of women.

To my mind the most interesting thing in art is the personal- ity of the artist. It's the biggest risk I've ever had to take.

4. comparison of inferiority (less ... than), e.g. John is less musical than his sister.

4. comparison of parallel increase or decrease (the... the, ...-er as),

e.g. The longer I think of his proposal the less I like it. The sooner this is done, the better. He became more cautious as he grew.