The Primitive Communal System

For some hundreds of thousands of years people lived under the primitive communal system. Labour gradually changed the life of man. The Iberians knew only stone tools and weapons; the Celts produced tools of metal – first, of bronse, that is, a mixture of copper and tin, and, later, of much harder metal, iron.

The improved tools of labour brought about important changes in the living conditions of primitive man. The Iberians had gathered or hunted their food, but the Celts began to tame and breed animals, to till the soil. Iron ploughs could cut the soil deeper, and so they could cultivate not only the light soil of the chalk downs but also the rich heavy soil in the valleys. They grew more and more corn. They began to build dwellings and make clothing. They learned the art of pottery.

The life of the Celts differed greatly from that of the Iberians. But both the Iberians and the Celts lived under the primitive system. At all stages of its development primitive society had very much in common; the primitive people worked collectively in clans or family communities; they owned common property and were all equal.

The related members of the clan jointly owned their hunting-grounds, tillable lands, rivers and lakes. They worked together and shared the products of their labour. All food was divided equally among the members of the clan.

Their tools were primitive and the labour productivity was low. A man could not produce any surplus over and above his immediate needs.

All the tribesmen became warriors in war-time, but in time of peace they hunted, tamed and bred animals and tilled the soil. A tribe was governed by a council of elders. The council distributed hunting- and fishing – grounds and tillable lands among the family communities and settled all disputes. The elders acted in the interests of the whole tribe. They were obeyed and trusted by all. They called meeting of all the tribesmen to discuss the most important problems.

In primitive society there was no private property; therefore there were no classes and no exploitation – that is, appropriation by the rich of the fruits of other men’s labour. Since there were no classes there was no state system, that is, no armed forces, no prisons, no overseers, no government bodies.

In the last centuries B.C. and in the first centuries A.D. the Celts were in a period of transition from primitive communal society to class society. The elders, military leaders and their warriors made up the tribal nobility. They were beginning to seize much land for themselves and they had more cattle than the other members of the clan. But still the communal way of life predominated among them.

Word Check

Ex. 1. Match the words in column A with their definitions in column B.

A	B
inhabitant	not suddenly, slowly but surely
sacrifice	to take hold of smth.
dwelling	to have part or portion of a larger amount which is divided among people
smooth	regarded with great respect or reverence
to penetrate	a person living in a place
to be acquainted with	a person who can tell correctly about the future events or predict
to worship	to form, compose or constitute
sacred	to be familiar with, to know
prophet	having an even surface, not rough
gradually	to make a way into or through smth.
plough	offering of smth. valuable, often a slaughtered animal to a god
to share the products of labour	a place of residence, house
to make up	to show reverence, respect or love for smb. or smth.
to seize	an implement used for digging furrows in the soil, esp. before seeds are planted

Ex. 2. Complete the sentences, use the words and expressions from the text.

1. When the people living in Britain were only at the first stage of social development, the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome were already …

2. Stonehenge is still …

3. We can learn something about the ancient people from their weapons and …

4. Celtic tribes called the Picts …

5. Julius Caesar was one of the earliest writers from whom we have learned much about the country …

6. The Celts … the use of copper, tin and iron.

7. They also cultivated crops and they used …

8. The Celts believed in many spirits and they …

9. They … not only animals, but also human beings to their gods.

10. The Celts were taught by priests called druids and they lived …

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Words for reference: the remains of their dwellings; and its inhabitants; sacrificed; sacred places; in existence; a mystery to scholars; were acquainted with; penetrated into the mountains on the North; light ploughs as well as hoes; worshipped Nature.

Ex. 3. Fill in the following prepositions: at, against, among, by, after, in, on, from, from … to, with.

1. … the dawn of their history the peoples … this planet lived … primitive societies.

2. The primitive peoples began their log path … progress … stone tools.

3. The earliest men could make smooth objects … stone … sharp edges and points.

4. Julius Caesar describes the island and the Celts … whom he fought.

5. Britons’ clothing was made … wool, woven … many colours while the other Celts wore skins.

6. The Celts believed … another life … death.

7. The life of the Celts differed greatly … that … the Iberians.

8. The elders were obeyed and trusted … all.

9. In the first centuries A.D. the Celts were in a period of transition … primitive communal society … class society.

10. But still the communal way of life predominated … them.