HETEROKONTOPHYTA, PHAEOPHYCEAE	475

attached plant. This results in a thallus with little cortex.

The receptacles of the ecad are small when compared to those of the attached plant. The eggs are also small and of variable size. The number of germlings produced from the ecad eggs is low. The time of gamete discharge in the ecad approximates that of nearby attached plants.

The Sargasso Sea is in a gyre in the Atlantic Ocean between 20 and 35 north latitude and is made up of huge masses of floating Sargassum

Fig. 21.51 Sargassum filipendula. (a) Part of a main branch.

(b) S. longifolium. (ab) Air bladder; (r) receptacle. ((a) after

Taylor, 1960.)

(gulfweed) (Fig. 21.51). The immense tracts of Sargassum are formed by continuous vegetative reproduction of the plants in the area. Holdfasts are never found. Occasionally, conceptacles can be seen, but they are always functionless, and the maintenance of the population is entirely by vegetative means.

REFERENCES

Amsler, C. D., and Neushel, M. (1989). Chemotactic effects of nutrients on spores of the kelps Macrocystis pyrifera and Pterygophora californica. Mar. Biol. (Berlin) 102:557–64.

Andersen, R. J. (1982). The life history of Desmarestia firma (C. Ag.) Skottsb. (Phaeophyceae, Desmarestiales). Phycologia 21:316–22.

Arnold, T. M., Targett, N. M., Tanner, C. E., Hatch, W. L., and Ferrari, K. E. (2001). Evidence for methyl jasmonate-induced phlorotannin production in

Fucus vesiculosus (Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol.

37:1026–9.

Asensi, A., Gall, E. A., Marie, D., Billot, C., Dion, P., and Kloareg, B. (2001). Clonal propagation of Laminaria digitata (Phaeophyceae) sporophytes through a diploid cell-filament suspension. J. Phycol. 37:411–17.

Bacon, L. E., and Vadas, R. L. (1991). A model for gamete release in Ascophyllum nodosum (Phaeophyta). J. Phycol. 27:166–73.

Bailey, J. C., Bidigare, R. R., Christensen, S. J., and Andersen, R. A. (1998). Phaeothamniophyceae classis nova: a new lineage of chromophytes based upon photosynthetic pigments, rbcL sequence analysis and ultrastructure. Protist 149:245–63.

Belanger, K. D., and Quatrano, R. S. (2000). Polarity: the role of localized secretion. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 3:67–72.

Bell, G. (1997). The evolution of the life cycle of brown seaweeds. Biol. J. Linnean Soc. 60:21–38.

Bergstrom, L., Berger, R., and Kautsky, L. (2003). Negative effects of nutrient enrichment on the establishment of Fucus vesiculosus in the Baltic Sea.

Eur. J. Phycol. 38:41–6.

Berkaloff, C., and Rousseau, B. (1979). Ultrastructure of male gametogenesis in Fucus serratus (Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 15:163–73.

Bird, N. L., and McLachlan, J. (1976). Control of formation of receptacles in Fucus distichus L., subsp. distichus (Phaeophyceae, Fucales). Phycologia 15:79–84.

476 CHLOROPLAST E.R.: EVOLUTION OF TWO MEMBRANES

Bisalputra, T. (1966). Electron microscopic study of protoplasmic continuity in certain brown algae. Can.J. Bot. 44:89–93.

Bisalputra, T., and Burton, H. (1969). The ultrastructure of the chloroplast of a brown alga Sphacelaria sp. II. Association between the chloroplast DNA and

the photosynthetic lamellae. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 29:224–35.

Bisalputra, T., Shields, M., and Markam, J. W. (1971). In situ observations of the fine structure of Laminaria gametophytes and embryos in culture. I. Methods and the ultrastructure of the zygote. J. Microscopie 10:83–98.

Bisgrove, S. R., and Kropf, D. L. (2004). Cytokinesis in brown algae: studies of asymmetric division in fucoid zygotes. Protoplasma 223:163–73.

Black, W. A. P. (1954a). Concentration gradients and their significance in Laminaria saccharina (L.) Lamour.

J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK 33:49–60.

Black, W. A. P. (1954b). The seasonal variation in the combined L-fucose content of the common British Laminariaceae and Fucaceae. J. Sci. Food Agric.

5:445–54.

Boalch, G. T. (1961). Studies on Ectocarpus in culture. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK 41:287–304.

Boney, A. D. (1966). A Biology of Marine Algae. London: Hutchinson.

Borowitzka, M. A., Larkum, A. W. D., and Nockolds, C. E. (1974). A scanning electron microscope study of the structure and organisation of the calcium carbonate deposits of algae. Phycologia 13:195–203.

Bouck, G. B. (1965). Fine structure and organelle associations in brown algae. J. Cell Biol. 26:523–37.

Bouck, G. B. (1969). Extracellular microtubules. The origin, structure and attachment of flagellar hairs in

Fucus and Ascophyllum antherozoids. J. Cell Biol. 40:446–60.

Bourne, V. L., and Cole, K. (1968). Some observations on the fine structure of the marine brown alga

Phaeostrophion irregulare. Can. J. Bot. 46:1369–75. Brawley, S. H. (1991). The fast block against polyspermy

in fucoid algae is an electrical block. Dev. Biol. 144:94–106.

Brawley, S. H., and Johnson, L. E. (1991). Survival of fucoid embryos in the intertidal zone depends upon developmental stage and microhabitat. J. Phycol. 27:179–86.

Brawley, S. H., Wetherbee, R., and Quatrano, R. S. (1976). Fine structural studies of the gametes and embryo of Fucus vesiculosus L. (Phaeophyta). J. Cell Sci. 20:233–54.

Buggeln, R. G. (1974). Negative phototropism of the haptera of Alaria esculenta (Laminariales). J. Phycol. 10:80–2.

Cabello-Pasini, A., and Alberte, R. S. (2001). Expression of carboxylating enzymes in Laminaria setchellii (Phaeophyceae). Phycologia 40:351–8.

Chapman, A. R. O. (1995). Functional ecology of fucoid algae: twenty-three years of progress. Phycologia 34:1–32.

Chapman, A. R. O., and Burrows, E. M. (1971). Field and culture studies of Desmarestia aculeata (L.) Lamour.

Phycologia 10:63–76.

Chapman, A. S., and Fletcher, R. L. (2002). Differential effects of sediments on survival and growth of Fucus serratus embryos (Fucales, Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 38:894–903.

Cheng, T-H. (1969). Production of kelp. A major source of China’s exploitation of the sea. Econ. Bot. 23:215–36.

Chi, E. Y. (1971). Brown algal pyrenoids. Protoplasma 72:101–4.

Clayton, M. N. (1980). Sexual reproduction – A rare occurrence in the life history of the complanate form of Scytosiphon (Scytosiphonaceae, Phaeophyta) from southern Australia. Br. J. Phycol.15:105–18.

Clayton, M. N., and Ashburner, C. M. (1994). Secretion of phenolic bodies following fertilization in Durvillaea potatorum (Durvillaeales, Phaeophyta). Eur. J. Phycol. 29:1–9.

Clint, H. B. (1927). The life history and cytology of

Sphacelaria bipinnata Sauv. Publ. Hartley Bot. Lab. Liverpool 3:1–19.

Cole, K. (1970). Ultrastructural characteristics in some species in the order Scytosiphonales. Phycologia 9:275–83.

Colijn, F., and van den Hoek, C. (1971). The life history of Sphacelaria furcigera Kütz. (Phaeophyceae). II. The influence of daylength and temperature on sexual and vegetative reproduction. Nova Hedwigia 21:899–922.

David, H. M. (1943). Studies in the autecology of

Ascophyllum nodosum Le Jol. J. Ecol. 31:178–98. Dayton, P. K., and Tegner, M. J. (1984). Catastrophic

storms, El Niño, and patch stability in a southern California kelp community. Science 224:283–5.

Dayton, P. K., Currie, V., Gerrodette, T., Keller, B. D., Rosenthal, G., and Ven Tresca, D. (1984). Patch dynamics and stability of some California kelp communities. Ecol. Monogr. 54:253–89.

de Reviers, B., and Rousseau, F. (1999). Towards a new classification of the brown algae. In Progress

HETEROKONTOPHYTA, PHAEOPHYCEAE	477

in Phycological Research, ed. F. E. Round and D. J. Chapman, Vol. 13, pp. 107–201. Bristol: Biopress Ltd.

Diouris, M. (1989). Long-distance transport of 14C- labelled assimilate in the Fucales: nature of translocated substances in Fucus serratus. Phycologia

28:504–11.

Dixon, N. M., Leadbeater, B. S. C., and Wood, K. R. (2000). Frequency of viral infection in a field population of Ectocarpus fasciculatus (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae). Phycologia 39:528–63.

Draisma, S. G. A., Prud’homme van Reine, W. F., Stam, W. T., and Olsen, J. L. (2001). A reassessment of phylogenetic relationships within the Phaeophyceae based on Rubisco large subunit and ribosomal DNA sequences. J. Phycol. 37:586–603.

Draisma, S. G. A., Olsen, J. L., Stam, W. T., and Prud’homme van Reine, W. F. (2002). Phylogenetic relationships within the Sphacelariales (Phaeophyceae): rbcL, RUBISCO spacer and morphology. Eur. J. Phycol. 37:385–401.

Druehl, L. D. (1967). Distribution of two species of Laminaria as related to some environmental factors. J. Phycol. 3:103–8.

Duggins, D. O. (1980). Kelp beds and sea otters: An experimental approach. Ecology 61:447–53.

Edelstein, T., Chen, L., and McLachlan, J. (1968). Sporangia of Ralfsia fungiformis (Gunn.) Setchell and Gardner. J. Phycol. 4:157–60.

Edelstein, T., Chen, L. C-M., and McLachlan, J. (1970). The life cycle of Ralfsia clavata and R. borneti. Can. J. Bot. 48:527–31.

Edwards, P. (1969). Field and cultural studies on the seasonal periodicity of growth and reproduction of selected Texas benthic marine algae. Contrib. Mar. Sci. Univ. Texas 14:59–114.

Estes, J. A., and Steinberg, P. D. (1988). Predation, herbivory, and kelp evolution. Paleobiology 14:19–36.

Evans, L. V. (1965). Cytological studies in the Laminariales. Ann. Bot. 29:541–62.

Evans, L. V. (1966). Distribution of pyrenoids from some brown algae. J. Cell Sci. 1:449–54.

Evans, L. V. (1968). Chloroplast morphology and fine structure in British fucoids. New Phytol. 67:173–8.

Evans, L. V., and Holligan, M. S. (1972). Correlated light and electron microscope studies on brown algae. I. Localization of alginic acid and

sulphated polysaccharides in Dictyota. New Phytol. 71:1161–72.

Evans, L. V., Simpson, M., and Callow, M. E. (1973). Sulphated polysaccharide synthesis in brown algae. Planta 110:237–52.

Floc’h, J. Y., and Penot, M. (1972). Transport du 32P et du 86Rb chez quelques algues brunes: Orientation des migrations et voies de conduction. Physiologie Végétale 10:677–86.

Forster, R. M., and Dring, M. J. (1994). Influence of blue light on the photosynthetic capacity of marine plants from different taxonomic, ecological and morphological groups. Eur. J. Phycol. 29:21–7.

Fulcher, R. G., and McCully, M. E. (1969). Histological studies on the genus Fucus. IV. Regeneration and adventure embryony. Can. J. Bot. 47:1643–9.

Gaines, S. D., and Roughgarden, J. (1987). Fish in offshore kelp forests affect recruitment to intertidal populations. Science 235:479–81.

Gibb, D. C. (1957). The free-living forms of Ascophyllum nodosum (L.) Le Jol. J. Ecol. 45:49–83.

Gibson, G., and Clayton, M. N. (1987). Sexual reproduction, early development and branching in Notheia anomala (Phaeophyta) and its classification in the Fucales. Phycologia 26:363–73.

Grenville, D. J., Peterson, R. L., Barrales, H. L., and Gerrath, J. F. (1982). Structure and development of the secretory cells and duct system in

Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) C. A. Agardh. J. Phycol. 18:232–40.

Guignard, L. (1892). Observations sur l’appareil mucifere des Laminariacées. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VII 15:1–46.

Henley, W. J., and Dunton, K. H. (1997). Effects of nitrogen supply and continuous darkness on growth and photosynthesis of the arctic kelp Laminaria solidungula. Limnol. Oceanog. 42:209–16.

Henry, B. E., and Van Alstyne, K. L. (2004). Effects of UV radiation on growth and phorotannins in Fucus gardneri (Phaeophyceae) juveniles and embryos. J. Phycol.

40:527–33.

Henry, E. C. (1987). Primitive reproductive characters and a photoperiodic response in Saccorhiza dermatodea (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae). Br. Phycol. J. 22:23–31.

Henry, E. C., and Cole, K. M. (1982). Ultrastructure of swarmers in the Laminariales (Phaeophyceae). I. Zoospores. J. Phycol. 18:550–69.

Hollenberg, G. J. (1969). An account of the Ralfsiaceae (Phaeophyta) of California. J. Phycol. 5:290–301.

Hsiao, S. I. C. (1969). Life history and iodine nutrition of the marine brown alga, Petalonia fascia (O. F. Müll.) Kuntze. Can. J. Bot. 47:1611–16.

Hsiao, S. I. C. (1970). Light and temperature effects on the growth, morphology, and reproduction of

Petalonia fascia. Can. J. Bot. 48:1359–61.

478 CHLOROPLAST E.R.: EVOLUTION OF TWO MEMBRANES

Hsiao, S. I. C., and Druehl, L. D. (1973). Environmental control of gametogenesis in Laminaria saccharina. IV. In situ development of gametophytes and young sporophytes. J. Phycol. 9:160–4.

Hurd, C. L., Galvin, R. S., Norton, T. A., and Dring, M. J. (1993). Production of hylaine hairs by intertidal species of Fucus (Fucales) and their role in phosphate uptake. J. Phycol. 29:160–5.

Iken, K., Amsler, C. D., Greer, S. P., and McClintock, J. B. (2001). Qualitative and quantitative studies of the swimming behaviour of Hincksia irregularis (Phaeophyceae) spores: ecological implications and parameters for quantitative swimming assays.

Phycologia 40:359–66.

Jaenicke, L., Müller, D. G., and Moore, R. E. (1974). Multifidene and aucantene, C11 hydrocarbons in the male attracting essential oil from the gynogametes of Cutleria multifida (Smith) Grev. (Phaeophyta). J. Am. Chem. Soc. 96:3324–5.

Jones, J. L., Callow, J. A., and Green, J. R. (1988). Monoclonal antibodies to sperm antigens of the brown alga Fucus serratus exhibit region-, gamete-, speciesand genus-preferential binding. Planta 176:298–306.

Kain, J. M. (1966). The role of light in the ecology of Laminaria hyperborea. Br. Ecol. Soc. Symp. 6:319–34.

Kapraun, D. F., and Boone, P. W. (1987). Karyological studies of three species of Scytosiphonaceae (Phaeophyta) from coastal North Carolina. J. Phycol. 23:318–22.

Kawai, H., Kubota, M., Kondo, T., and Watanabe, M. (1991). Action spectra for phototaxis in zoospores of the brown alga Pseudochorda gracilis. Protoplasma

161:17–22.

Kawai, H., Nakamura, S., Mimuro, M., Furuya, M., and Watanabe, M. (1996). Microspectrofluorometry of the autofluorescent flagellum in phototactic algal zoids.

Protoplasma 191:172–7.

Klinger, T., and DeWeede, R. E. (1988). Stipe rings, age and size in populations of Laminaria setchelli Silva (Laminariales, Phaeophyta) in British Columbia.

Phycologia 27:234–40.

Kloareg, D., and Quatrano, R. S. (1988). Structure of the cell walls of marine algae and ecophysiological functions of the matrix polysaccharides. Oceanogr. Mar.

Biol. Rev. 26:234–40.

Knight, M. (1929). Studies in the Ectocarpaceae. II. The life-history and cytology of Ectocarpus siliculosus Dillw.

Trans. R. Soc. Edinburgh 56:307–32.

Kubanek, J., Lester, S. E., Fenical, W., and Hay, M. E. (2004). Ambiguous role of phlorotannins as chemical

defenses in the brown alga Fucus vesiculosus. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 277:79–93.

Kuckuck, P. (1899). Über den generationwechsel von

Cutleria multifida (Engl. Bot.) Grev. Wiss. Meeresunters. Helgoland N.F. 3:95–116.

Kumke, J. (1973). Beiträge zur Periodizität der OogonEntleerung bei Dictyota dichotoma (Phaeophyta). Z. Pfl. Physiol. 70:191–210.

Kupper, F. C., Schweigert, N., Gall, E. A., Legendre, J.-M., Vilter, H., and Kloareg, B. (1998). Iodine uptake in Laminariales involves extracellular, haloperoxidase-mediated oxidation of iodide. Planta 207:163–71.

Kylin, H. (1934). Zur Kenntnis der Entwicklungsgeschichte einiger Phaeophyceen.

Lunds Univ. Årsskr. N.F. Avd. 30:1–19.

Ladah, L., Bermudez, R., Pearson, G., and Serrao, E. (2003). Fertilization success and recruitment of dioecious and hermaphroditic fucoid seaweeds with contrasting distributions near their southern limit.

Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 262:173–83.

Larkum, A. W. D. (1972). Frond structure and growth in Laminaria hyperborea. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK

52:405–18.

Lim, B.-L., Kawai, H., Hori, H., and Osawa, S. (1986). Molecular evolution of 5S ribosomal RNA from red and brown algae. Japanese J. Genet. 61:169–76.

Lobban, C. S. (1978). The growth and death of the Macrocystis sporophyte (Phaeophyceae, Laminariales). Phycologia 17:196–212.

Lodge, S. M. (1948). Algal growth in the absence of Patella on an experimental strip of seashore. Proc. Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc. 61:78–83.

Loiseaux, S. (1970). Streblonema anomalum S. et G.

and Compsonema sporangiiferum S. et G. stages in the life history of a minute Scytosiphon. Phycologia

9:185–91.

Loiseaux, S. (1973). Ultrastructure of zoidogenesis in unilocular zoidocysts of several brown algae. J. Phycol. 9:277–89.

Loiseaux, S., and West, J. A. (1970). Brown algal mastigonemes: Comparative ultrastructure. Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 89:524–32.

Luder, U. H., and Clayton, M. N. (2004). Induction of phlorotannins in the brown macroalga Ecklonia radiata (Laminariales, Phaeophyta) in response to simulated herbivory – the first microscopic study. Planta 218:928–37.

Lüning, K. (1981). Egg release in gametophytes of Laminaria saccharina: Induction by darkness and inhibition by blue light and U.V. Br. Phycol. J. 16:379–93.

HETEROKONTOPHYTA, PHAEOPHYCEAE	479

Lüning, K., and Dring, M. J. (1972). Reproduction induced by blue light in female gametophytes of

Laminaria saccharina. Planta 104:252–6.

Lüning, K., and Dring, M. J. (1973). The influence of light quality on the development of the brown algae

Petalonia and Scytosiphon. Br. Phycol. J. 8:333–8. Lüning, K., and Dring, M. J. (1975). Reproduction,

growth and photosynthesis of gametophytes of Laminaria saccharina grown in blue and red light. Mar. Biol. 29:195–200.

Lüning, K., and Müller, D. G. (1978). Chemical interaction in sexual reproduction of several Laminariales (Phaeophyceae): Release and attraction of spermatozoids. Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 89:333–41.

Lüning, K., Schmitz, K., and Willenbrink, J. (1972). Translocation of 14C-labelled assimilates in

two Laminaria species. Proc. VII Int. Seaweed Symp. 420–5.

Lüning, K., Wagner, A., and Buchholz, C. (2000). Evidence for inhibitors of sporangium formation in Laminaria digitata (Phaeophyceae) during the season of rapid growth. J. Phycol. 36:1129–34.

Madsen, T. V., and Maberly, S. C. (1990). A comparison of air and water as environments for photosynthesis by the intertidal alga Fucus spiralis (Phaeophyta). J. Phycol. 26:24–30.

Maier, I. (1982). New aspects of pheromone-triggered spermatozoid release in Laminaria digitata (Phaeophyta). Protoplasma 113:137–43.

Maier, I. (1984). Culture studies of Chorda tomentosa (Phaeophyta, Laminariales). Br. Phycol. J. 19:95–106.

Maier, I. (1997a). The fine structure of the male gamete of Ectocarpus siliculosus (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae). I. General structure of the cell. Eur. J. Phycol.

32:241–53.

Maier, I. (1997b). The fine structure of the male gamete of Ectocarpus siliculosus (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae). II. The flagellar apparatus. Eur. J. Phycol. 32:255–66.

Maier, I., and Müller, D. G. (1986). Sexual pheromones in algae. Biol. Bull. 170:145–75.

Maier, L., Müller, D. G., Gassmann, G., Boland, W., Marner, F-J., and Jaenicke, L. (1984). Pheromonetriggered gamete release in Chorda tomentosa.

Naturwissenschaften 71:48–9.

Malm, T., and Kautsky, L. (2003). Differences in lifehistory characteristics are consistent with the vertical distribution pattern of Fucus serratus and Fucus vesiculosus (Fucales, Phaeophyceae) in the central Baltic Sea. J. Phycol. 39:880–7.

Mann, K. H., and Chapman, A. R. O. (1975). Primary production of marine macrophytes. In Photosynthesis and

Productivity in Different Environments, ed. J. P. Cooper,

Int. Biol. Prog. 3:307–33. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Manton, I. (1959). Observations on the internal structure of the spermatozoid of Dictyota. J. Exp. Bot. 10:448–61.

Manton, I., and Clarke, B. (1950). Electron microscope observations of the spermatozoid of Fucus. Nature 166:973–4.

Manton, I., and Clarke, B. (1951). Electron microscope observations on the zoospores of Pylaiella and

Laminaria. J. Exp. Bot. 23:242–6.

Manton, I., and Clarke, B. (1956). Observations with the electron microscope on the internal structure of the spermatozoid of Fucus. J. Exp. Bot. 7:416–32.

Mariani, P., Tolomio, C., and Braghetta, P. (1985). An ultrastructural approach to the adaptive role of the cell wall in the intertidal alga Fucus virsoides. Protoplasma 128:208–17.

Marner, F-J., Müller, B., and Jaenicke, L. (1984). Lamoxirene, the Laminaria-pheromone: Structural proof of the spermatozoid releasing and attracting factor of Laminariales. Z. Naturforsch. 39c:689–91.

Medlin, L. K., Kooistra, W. H. C. F., Potter, D., Saunders, G. W., and Andersen, R. A. (1997). Phylogenetic relationships of the “golden algae” (haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes) and their plastids. In Origins of Algae and Their Plastids, ed. D. Bhattacharya,

pp. 187–219. Vienna: Springer-Verlag.

Moe, R. L., and Silva, P. C. (1977). Antarctic marine flora: Uniquely devoid of kelps. Science 196:1206–8.

Moe, R. L., and Silva, P. C. (1981). Morphology and taxonomy of Himantothallus (including Phaeoglossum and

Phyllogigas), an Antarctic member of the Desmarestiales (Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 17:15–29.

Moss, B. (1965). Apical dominance in Fucus vesiculosus. New Phytol. 64:387–92.

Moss, B., (1967). The apical meristem of Fucus. New Phytol. 66:67–74.

Moss, B. (1970). Meristems and growth control in

Ascophyllum nodosum (L.) Le Jol. New Phytol. 69:253–60. Moss, B. (1971). Meristems and morphogenesis in

Ascophyllum nodosum ecad mackii (Cotton). Br. Phycol. J. 6:187–93.

Moss, B. (1983). Sieve elements in the Fucales. New Phytol. 93:433–7.

Moss, B., and Sheader, A. (1973). The effect of light and temperature upon the germination and growth of Halidrys siliquosa (L.) Lygnb. (Phaeophyceae, Fucales).

Phycologia 12:63–8.

480 CHLOROPLAST E.R.: EVOLUTION OF TWO MEMBRANES

Motomura, T. (1991). Immunofluorescence microscopy of fertilization and parthenogenesis in Laminaria angusta (Phaeophyta). J. Phycol. 27:248–57.

Motomura, T., Ichimura, T., and Melkonian, M. (1997). Coordinative nuclear and chloroplast division in unilocular sporangia of Laminaria angustata (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 33:266–71.

Müller, D. (1962). Über jahres und lunarperiodische Erscheinungen bei einigen Braunalgen. Bot. Mar. 4:140–55.

Müller, D. (1974). Sexual reproduction and isolation of a sex attractant in Cutleria multifida (Smith) Grev. (Phaeophyta). Biochem Physiol. Pflanz. 165:212–15.

Müller, D. (1978). Locomotive responses of male gametes to the species specific sex attractant in

Ectocarpus siliculosus (Phaeophyta). Arch. Protistenk. 120:371–77.

Müller, D. (1979). Genetic affinity of Ectocarpus siliculosus (Dillw.) Lyngb. from the Mediterranean, North Atlantic and Australia. Phycologia 18:312–18.

Müller, D. (1982). Sexuality and sex attraction. In The Biology of Seaweeds eds. C. S. Lobban, and M. J. Wynne, pp. 661–74. Los Angeles and Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press.

Müller, D., and Jaenicke, L. (1973). Fucoserraten, the female sex attractant of Fucus serratus L. (Phaeophyta). FEBS Lett. 30:137–9.

Müller, D., and Lüthe, N. M. (1981). Hormonal interaction in sexual reproduction of Desmarestia aculeata (Phaeophyceae). Br. Phycol. J. 16:351–6.

Müller, D., Jaenicke, L., Donike, M., and Akintobi, T. (1971). Sex attractant in a brown alga: Chemical structure. Science 171:815–17.

Müller, D., Gassmann, G., and Lüning, K. (1979). Isolation of a spermatozoid-releasing and -attracting substance from female gametophytes of Laminaria digitata. Nature 279:430–1.

Müller, D., Gassmann, G., Boland, W., Marner, F., and Jaenicke, L. (1981). Dictyota dichotoma (Phaeophyceae): Identification of sperm attractant. Science 212:1040–1.

Müller, D., Peters, A., Gassmann, G., Boland, W., Marner, F-J., and Jaenicke, L. (1982). Identification of a sexual hormone and related substances in the marine alga Desmarestia. Naturwissenschaften 69:290–1.

Müller, D., Maier, I., and Gassmann, G. (1985). Survey on sexual pheromone specificity in Laminariales (Phaeophyceae). Phycologia 24:475–84.

Nagasato, C., and Motomura, T. (2002). New pyrenoid formation in the brown alga, Scytosiphon lomentaria (Scytosiphonales, Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 38:800–6.

Nakahara, H., and Nakamura,Y. (1973). Parthenogenesis, apogamy and apospory in

Alaria crassifolia (Laminariales). Mar. Biol. 18:327–32.

Nakamura, Y. (1965). Development of zoospores in Ralfsia-like thallus, with special reference to the life cycle of the Scytosiphonales. Bot. Mag. Tokyo 78:109–10.

Nakamura, Y. (1972). A proposal on the classification of the Phaeophyta. In Contributions to the Systematics of Benthic Marine Algae of the North Pacific, ed.

I. A. Abbott, and M. Kurogi, pp. 147–56. New York: Academic Press.

Nicholson, N. L. (1970). Field studies on the giant kelp

Nereocystis. J. Phycol. 6:177–82.

Nienberg, W. (1931). Die Entwicklung der Keimlinge von Fucus vesiculosus und ihre Bedeutung für die Phylogenie der Phaeophyceen. Wiss. Meeresunters. Abt. Kiel N.F. 21:49–63.

Nizamuddin, M., and Womersley, H. B. S. (1960). Structure and systematic position of the Australian brown alga, Notheia anomala. Nature

187:673–4.

Norton, T. A. (1972). The development of Saccorhiza dermatodea (Phaeophyceae, Laminariales) in culture.

Phycologia 11:81–6.

Norton, T. A. (1978). The factors influencing the distribution of Saccorhiza polyschides in the region of Lough Ine. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK 58:527–36.

Norton, T. A., and Burrows, E. M. (1969). Studies on marine algae of the British Isles. 7. Saccorhiza polyschides (Lightf.) Batt. Br. Phycol. J. 4:19–53.

Novaczek, I. (1981). Stipe growth rings in Ecklonia radiata (C. Ag.) J. Ag. (Laminariales). Br. Phycol. J. 16:363–71.

Oliveira, L., Walker, D. C., and Bisalputra, T. (1980). Ultrastructural, cytochemical and enzymatic studies on the adhesive “plaques” of the brown alga, Laminaria saccharina (L.) Lamour. and

Nereocystis leutkeana (Nert.) Post. et Rupr. Protoplasma 104:1–15.

Oltmanns, F. (1889). Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Fucaceen. Bibl. Bot. 3(14):1–100.

Papenfuss, G. F. (1934). Alternation of generations in

Sphacelaria bipinnata Sauv. Bot. Not. 437–44. Papenfuss, G. F. (1935). Alternation of generations in

Ectocarpus siliculosus. Bot. Gaz. 96:421–46. Papenfuss, G. F. (1951). Phaeophyta. In Manual of

Phycology, ed. G. M. Smith, pp. 119–38. Waltham, MA: Chronica Botanica.

Parker, B. C. (1963). Translocation in the giant kelp

Macrocystis. Science 140:891–2.

HETEROKONTOPHYTA, PHAEOPHYCEAE	481

Parker, B. C. (1965). Translocation in the giant kelp Macrocystis. I. Rates, direction, quantity of C14- labelled products and fluorescein. J. Phycol. 1:41–6.

Parker, B. C., and Dawson, E. Y. (1966). Non-calcareous marine algae from California Miocene deposits. Nova Hedwigia 10:273–95.

Pavia, H., Toth, G. B., Lindgren, A., and Aberg, P. (2003). Intraspecific variation in the phlorotannin content of the brown alga Ascophyllum nodosum. Phycologia

42:378–83.

Pearson, G. A., and Brawley, S. H. (1998). A model for signal transduction during gamete release in the fucoid alga Pelvetia compressa. Plant Physiol.

118:305–13.

Percival, E., and McDowell, R. H. (1967). Chemistry and Enzymology of Marine Algal Polysaccharides. London: Academic Press.

Pereira, R. C., Cavalcanti, D. N., and Teixeira, V. L. (2000). Effects of secondary metabolites from the tropical Brazilian brown alga Dictyota menstrualis on the amphipod Parhyale hawaiensis. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser.

205:95–100.

Phillips, J. A., and Clayton, M. N. (1993). Comparative flagellar morphology of spermatozoids of the Dictyotales (Pheophyceae). Eur. J. Phycol. 28:123–7.

Pohnert, G., and Boland, W. (2002). The oxylipin chemistry of attraction and defense in brown algae and diatoms. Nat. Prod. Rep. 19:108–22.

Potin, P., Bouarab, K., Kupper, F., and Kloareg, B. (1999). Oligosaccharide recognition signals and defense reactions in marine plant-microbe interactions. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2:276–83.

Price, I. R., and Ducker, S. C. (1966). The life history of the brown alga Splachnidium rugosum. Phycologia

5:261–73.

Pueschel, C. M., and Korb, R. E. (2001). Storage of nitrogen in the form of protein bodies in the kelp Laminaria solidungula. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser.

218:107–14.

Rawlence, D. J. (1973). Some aspects of the ultrastructure of Ascophyllum nodosum (L.) Le Jolis (Phaeophyceae, Fucales) including observations on cell plate formation. Phycologia 12:17–28.

Reed, D. C., Laur, D. R., and Ebeling, A. W. (1988). Variation in algal dispersal and recruitment: the importance of episodic events. Ecol. Monogr. 58:321–55.

Reed, R. H., Davison, I. R., Chudek, J. A., and Foster, R. (1985). The osmotic role of mannitol in the Phaeophyta: An appraisal. Phycologia 24:35–47.

Rousseau, F., Leclerc, M-C., and de Reviers, B. (1997). Molecular phylogeny of European Fucales

(Phaeophyceae) based on partial large-subunit rDNA sequence comparisons. Phycologia 36:438–46.

Russell, G., and Fletcher, R. L. (1975). A numerical taxonomic study of the British Phaeophyta. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK 55:763–83.

Russell, G., and Garbary, D. (1978). Generic circumscription in the family Ectocarpaceae (Phaeophyceae). J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK 58:517–25.

Sargent, M. C., and Lantrip, L. W. (1952). Photosynthesis, growth and translocation in giant kelp. Am. J. Bot. 39:99–107.

Saunders, G. W., and Druehl, L. D. (1992). Nucleotide sequences of the small-subunit ribosomal RNA genes from selected Laminariales (Phaeophyta). Implications for kelp evolution. J. Phycol. 28:544–9.

Savaugeau, C. (1899). Les Cutlériacées et leur alternance de générations. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. Ser. 8 10:265–62.

Savaugeau, C. (1900–14). Remarques sur les Sphacélariacées. Bordeaux. 634 pp. in

J. Bot. 14–18.

Scagel, R. F. (1971). Guide to Common Seaweeds of British Columbia. Victoria: British Columbia Prov. Museum.

Schaffelke, B., and Lüning, K. (1994). A circannual rhythm controls seasonal growth in the kelps

Laminaria hyperborea and L. digitata from Helgoland (North Sea). Eur. J. Phycol. 29:49–56.

Schloesser, R. E., and Blum, J. L. (1980). Sphacelaria lacustris sp. nov., a freshwater brown alga from Lake Michigan. J. Phycol. 16:201–7.

Schmitt, T. M., Lindquist, N., and Hay, M. E. (1998). Seaweed secondary metabolites as antifoulants: effects if Dictyota spp. diterpenes on survivor-

ship, settlement, and development of marine invertebrate larvae. Chemoecology 8:125–31.

Schoenwaelder, M. E. A., and Clayton, M. N. (1999). The presence of phenolic compounds in isolated cell walls of brown algae. Phycologia 38:161–6.

Schoenwaelder, M. E. A., and Clayton, M. N. (2000). Physode formation in embryos of Phyllospora comosa and Hormosira banksii (Phaeophyceae). Phycologia

39:1–9.

Schreiber, E. (1932). Über die Entwicklungsgeschichte und die systematische Stellung der Desmarestiaceen. Z. Bot. 25:561–82.

Serrão, E. A., Pearson, G., Kautsky, M. L., and Brawley, S. H. (1996). Successful external fertilization in turbulent environments. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA

93:5286–90.

Shibata, T., Tamaguchi, K., Nagayama, K., Kawaguchi, S., and Nakamura, T. (2002). Inhibitory activity of brown algal phlorotannins against glycosidases from

482 CHLOROPLAST E.R.: EVOLUTION OF TWO MEMBRANES

the viscera of the turban shell Turbo cornutus. Eur. J. Phycol. 37:493–500.

Shih, M. L., Floch, J-Y., and Srivastava, L. M. (1983). Localization of 14C-labeled assimilates in sieve elements of Macrocystis integrifolia by histoautoradiography. Can. J. Bot. 61:157–63.

Sideman, E. J., and Scheirer, D. C. (1977). Some fine structural observations on developing and mature sieve elements in the brown alga Laminaria saccharina. Am. J. Bot. 64:649–57.

Sjøtun, K., and Schoschina, E. V. (2002). Gametophytic development of Laminaria spp. (Laminariales, Phaeophyta) at low temperature. Phycologia 41:147–52.

Smith, G. M. (1955). Cryptogamic Botany, Vol. 1, 2nd edn. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Smith, G. M. (1969). Marine Algae of the Monterey Peninsula, California, 2nd edn. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.

Speransky, V. V., Speransky, S. S., and Brawley, S. H. (1999). Cryoanalytical studies of freezing damage and recovery in Fucus vesiculosus (Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 35:1264–75.

Speransky, V. V., Brawley, S. H., and McCully, M. E. (2001). Ion fluxes and modification of the extracellular matrix during gamete release in fucoid algae. J. Phycol. 37:555–73.

Stafford, C. J., Green, J. R., and Callow, J. A. (1992). Organization of glycoproteins into plasma membrane domains on Fucus serratus eggs. J. Cell Sci. 101:437–48.

Steen, H. (2003). Apical hair formation and growth of

Fucus evanescens and F. serratus (Phaeophyceae) germlings under various nutrient and temperature regimes. Phycologia 42:26–30.

Sundene, O. (1962a). Growth in the sea of Laminaria digitata sporophytes from cultures. Nytt Mag. Bot. 9:5–24.

Sundene, O. (1962b). The implications of transplant and culture experiments on the growth and distribution of Alaria esculenta. Nytt Mag. Bot. 9:155–74.

Sundene, O. (1963). Reproduction and ecology of

Chorda tomentosa. Nytt Mag. Bot. 10:159–71. Tan, I. H., and Druehl, L. D. (1996). A ribosomal

DNA phylogeny supports the close evolutionary relationships among the Sporochnales, Desmarestiales, and Laminariales (Phaeophyceae). J. Phycol. 32:112–18.

Targett, N. M., and Arnold, T. M. (1998). Predicting the effects of brown algal phlorotannins on marine herbivores in tropical and temperate oceans. J. Phycol.

34:195–205.

Tatewaki, M. (1966). Formation of a crustaceous sporophyte with unilocular sporangia in Scytosiphon lomentaria. Phycologia 6:62–6.

Taylor, W. R. (1957). Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Taylor, W. R. (1960). Marine Algae of the Eastern Tropical and Subtropical Coasts of the Americas. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Terry, L. A., and Moss, B. L. (1980). The effect of photoperiod on receptacle initiation in Ascophyllum nodosum (Lo) Le Jol. Br. Phycol. J. 15:291–301.

Terry, L. A., and Moss, B. L. (1981). The effect of irradiance and temperature on the germination of four species of Fucales Br. Phycol. J. 16:143–51.

Thuret, G. (1854). Recherches sur la fécondation des Fucacées. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. IV 2:197–214.

Thuret, G., and Bornet, E. (1878). Études Phycologiques. Paris.

Tovey, D. J., and Moss, B. L. (1978). Attachment of the haptera of Laminaria digitata (Huds.) Lamour.

Phycologia 17:17–22.

Tseng, C. K. (1981). Commercial cultivation. In The Biology of Seaweeds, ed. C. S. Lobban, and M. J. Wynne, pp. 680–725. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. Calif. Press.

Vadas, R. L. (1972). Ecological implications of culture studies on Nereocystis luetkeana. J. Phycol. 8:196–203.

Van Alstyne, K. L., and Pelletreau, K. N. (2000). Effect of nutrient enrichment on growth and phlorotannin production in Fucus gardneri embryos. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 206:33–43.

van den Hoek, C. (1982). The distribution of benthic marine algae in relation to the temperature regulation of their life histories. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 18:81–144.

van den Hoek, C., and Flinterman, A. (1968). The life history of Sphacelaria furcigera Kütz. (Phaeophyceae). Blumea 16:193–242.

Vreeland, V. (1972). Immunocytochemical localization of the extracellular polysaccharide alginic acid in the brown seaweed. Fucus distichus. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 20:358–67.

Vreeland, V., Waite, J. H., and Epstein, M. (1998). Polyphenols and oxidases in substratum adhesion by marine algae and mussels. J. Phycol. 34:1–8.

Walker, F. T. (1956). Periodicity of the Laminariaceae around Scotland. Nature 177:1246.

Williams, J. L. (1898). Reproduction in Dictyota dichotoma. Ann. Bot. 12:559–60.

Williams, J. L. (1904). Studies in the Dictyotaceae. I. The cytology of the gametophyte generation. Ann. Bot. 18:183–204.

HETEROKONTOPHYTA, PHAEOPHYCEAE	483

Williams, J. L. (1905). Studies in the Dictyotaceae. II. The periodicity of sexual cells in Dictyota dichotoma. Ann. Bot. 19:531–60.

Wright, P. J., Callow, J. A., and Green, J. R. (1995a). The Fucus (Phaecophyceae) sperm receptor for eggs. II. Isolation of a binding protein which partially activates eggs. J. Phycol. 31:592–600.

Wright, P. J., Green, J. A., and Callow, J. A. (1995b). The Fucus (Phaeophyceae) sperm receptor for eggs. I. Development and characteristics of a binding assay. J. Phycol. 31:584–91.

Wynne, M. J. (1969). Life history and systematic studies of some Pacific North American Phaeophyceae (brown algae). Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 50:1–88.