VIII. Insert the articles where necessary.

As … result of increasing economic and political stability over … past years, … economy of Russia is experiencing … steady economic growth, which is likely to continue and to come along with … growing demand for energy and natural resources. … Russian economy remains among … most energy intensive in the world. Russia’s Adjusted Net Savings index falls far below … world and European average. Forecasts of … emissions and … discharges of major pollutants show that urban air pollution will remain … serious problem, while water pollution and drinking water quality will increasingly become … problem in … long run.

IX. Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions.

Russia’s Ecological Doctrine and the Law … Environmental Protection were adopted … January 2002 and represent the governmental commitment … environmental protection. Energy security and food security are broadly recognized as national priorities. … addition, Russia is a party … multilateral environmental agreements and conventions. In order … Russia to fully realize its vast potential … improvements … energy efficiency and reduction … pollution, it will be necessary to eliminate the economic, structural and institutional barriers that currently discourage investors … these areas. … the recognition … development challenges faced … the Russian economy, there is an urgent need to mainstream the concept … environmental sustainability … political, economic and social agendas of contemporary Russia.

X. Make a summary of the text “Environment”.

XI. Discuss the ecological problems of Russia with your partner.

1.2.4. Economic Development

Read the text to fulfil the tasks

The incidence of poverty increased sharply in Russia during its period of economic transition. Children aged 7-15 years and women are at the highest risk. The two main reasons for the rise are a sharp economic contraction during much of the transition period and a large increase in income inequality. Increased income inequality has resulted in part from a shift of income from wages to income from entrepreneurship, which is typically distributed more unequally than wage income. The decline in wage income is the result of both a sharp drop in the number of public-sector jobs and a large decline in real public-sector wages. Unemployment of a family member is another strong covariate of household poverty.

Despite its large incidence, much of the poverty in Russia is relatively transitory, with nearly 55% of the poor escaping poverty on their own over one-year spans. This implies that the potential for reducing poverty broadly and rapidly via economic growth is significant. Indeed, independent research suggests a decrease in the incidence of poverty over the last three years, with significant economic growth in Russia. The long-term poor should be an important target group for social assistance schemes and anti-poverty programs.

Although there are a large number of public transfer programmes in Russia, including disability allowances, child and family allowances, pensions, and unemployment benefits, these have obviously not been able to prevent a rise in poverty. There are three main reasons for this. First, the resources allocated to poverty programs are relatively small, as the budget for payroll tax-financed social insurance schemes (e.g., pensions and unemployment benefits) has fallen with the fall in wages. Second, many transfer programmes inherited from the Soviet era, such as low administered prices for food, rent, household utilities, and guaranteed employment, are not appropriate for a market economy. Third, the system of providing social benefits to certain categories of individuals does not guarantee that the genuinely poor will receive these benefits, as those categories do not always coincide with poverty status.