VIII. Explain the italicized grammar constructions in the following sentences.

1. So before turning to the various theories of delinquency causation that are discussed before, it is important to point out the correlative factors of delinquency.

2. The age of first delinquency and the type of crime typically committed at various age varies from the area to area in cities.

3. Individualized treatment can best be accomplished, it is being recognized, when individual is still young.

4. The underlying reasons are not difficult to locate.

5. Delinquency among boys is induced largely by opportunities presented by the environment, while among girls delinquency is due more often to emotional maladjustments and personal inadequacies.

IX. Discuss with your partner the situation with juvenile delinquency in Russia and speak on the main factors of delinquency in this country.

Unit 8.2

Civil Procedures

Read the text to fulfil the tasks.

The appeal system in civil law is not much different from that in criminal law. The High Court may hear appeals from magistrates' courts, county courts and some tribunals. But the main avenue of appeal is to the Court of Appeal (Civil Division), which can deal with appeals from all lower civil courts. Three Lords Justice of Appeal usually sit together to hear an appeal on questions of law and fact. They can reverse or amend the decision of the lower court, or sometimes order a new trial.

Appeals from the Court of Appeal may be made to the House of Lords. In court the accused person can receive legal aid. The legal aid system was established in 1949. It is a scheme whereby those persons who are unable to afford the costs of legal advice and representation in criminal and civil matters will have their bills paid by the state. Applicants have to prove that they have a suitable legal case and that their incomes fall below certain financial limits. Generally speaking, only those with very low incomes or who are already receiving state welfare benefits will qualify for legal aid. Payments to lawyers are made through the Legal Aid Fund, administered by the Legal Aid Board.

There have been frequent demands that the income limits should be raised to include more people. The situation at present means that, given the high costs of legal actions, only the poor or the very rich can afford to resort to litigation. Government reductions in the legal aid fund suggest that fewer people in future will be eligible for legal aid. This is seen as a serious development in the provision of justice, especially when the demand for legal aid is constantly rising. The situation is made worse because legal centres, which operate in deprived areas to provide free legal advice, are frequently threatened with closure. These centres are mainly funded by local and central government, and their potential loss will narrow even further the legal opportunities for the poor and the disadvantaged. Responsibility for the administration and management of the English legal system is divided between various government departments and agencies.

The Lord Chancellor is the head of the legal system and profession, he selects judges, QCs and magistrates and may preside over the Law Lords if he so wishes. Secondly, he is the presiding officer (Speaker) of the House of Lords, theoretically responsible for discipline in the House. Finally, he is a senior minister (a political appointee of the sitting government), the Cabinet member and the government's chief legal advisor heading a government department, the Lord Chancellor's Department. In this capacity he has overall responsibility for the court system, including the Supreme Court (comprising the Court of Appeal, High Court and Crown Court) and the county courts in England and Wales. He has responsibility for the civil justice process, for promoting general reforms in the civil law and for the legal aid schemes.

The Home Secretary has overall responsibility for criminal law, the police service, the probation and after-care service, and for advising the Crown on the exercise of the royal prerogative of mercy.

The Attorney General and the Solicitor General are the Government's principal legal advisers, providing advice on a range of legal matters, including proposed legislation. As well as exercising various civil law functions, the Attorney General has final responsibility for enforcing the criminal law. The Solicitor General is the Attorney's deputy.

Some administrative functions are performed by senior members of the judiciary: the Lord Chief Justice, for example, who is head of the Queen's Bench Division ranking second only to the Lord Chancellor in the judicial hierarchy, has some responsibilities for the organisation and work of the criminal courts.