Read and translate the text

“The roads of the 19^th Century“

Although the first serious attempt at road building since Roman times took place in Scotland during the eighteenth century where General Wade began a system of metalled roads to improve communications in the Highlands primarily for military purposes during the Jacobite trouble it was not until the following century that any real effort to reconstruct the road system was attempted.

Early in the nineteenth century, Thomas Telford (1757 - 1834), a famous engineer who later became the first President of the Institution of Givil Engineers, constructed a further 1.000 miles of new roads in the Highland and at the same time out the Caledonian Canal. Later, he moved southwards and reconstructed the London to Holy head road, including the erection of the Menai Straits suspension bridge.

Telford gave careful attention to the alignment of his roads and reduced the gradients as much as possible so as to assists the speeding-up of coach travel. His method of construction was to excavate down to a level formation, on top of which were placed hand-pecked stones varying in depth from about 8 in at the centre of the road to about 4 in at the haunches, giving a 4 in cross fall over the half width of the road. These stones were not more than 4 in wide and were laid with their broadest and downwards, the spaces between being filled with fine chippings. On top this foundation, two layers of broken stone, 4 in and 2 in thick respectively, were placed in the central 18 ft or the road and compacted by traffic. At the sides of the road the stones were placed in a single layer 6 in thick. The final surfacing layer of gravel, 1, 5 in thick, was then placed over the full width of the road, watered, and left to be compacted by traffic.

At the same time that Telford was occupied with this work, another famous engineer, John Loudon Mc Adam (1756- 1836), was carrying out his own experiments on road construction. Mc Adam's construction different from that of Telford in the he dispensed with the carefully prepared foundation layer and instead dug the formation to the required surface camber, which was only about half that provided by Telford.On top of the formation he placed two 4 in layers of broken stone, and finally covered these with a surfacing layers of 2 in thick, formed by angular fragments of broken stone not greaten than 1 in size. This layer was compacted in the first place by ramming and later by traffic.

Following the success of his methods of construction, Mc Adam was appointed Surveyor - General of Roads in 1827 and 'macadam' roads were soon in existence throughout the country.

The work of Telford and Mc Adam opened up a vast improvement in communications and, for the first time for many years, roads were being provided to suit the requirements of the traffic, including steam carriages which were in the experimental development stage at that time. Unfortunately this are coincided with the birth of the railways which brought about an immediate reduction in the number of passengers earned by the stagecoaches. Many important coaches had to be withdrawn on financial grounds.

Answer the following questions

1. Who began a system of met alled roads?

2. For what purpose did he begin to reconstruct the road system?

3. Who was the first President of the Institution of Civil Engineers?

4. What did Thomas Telford construct?

5. Did he reconstruct the London to Holyhead road?

6. What did he give careful attention to?

7. What was his method like?

8. What was placed at the sides of the roads?

9. Who was John Loudon Mc Adam?

10. Did his construction differ from Telford’s?

11. What did he place on the top of the formation?

12. When was he appointed Surveyor-General of Roads?

13. What did the work of Telford and Mc Adam open up?

14. With what did this era coincide?

15. Was it good or bad for the road syste

Translate the following sentences

1. General Wade began a system of met alled roads to improve communications in the Highlands

2. Telford gave careful attention to the alignment of his roads

3. Thomas Telford constructed the London to Holyhead road, including the erection of the suspension Bridge

4. The formation was covered with a surfacing layer 2 in this formed by angular fragments of broken stone

5. The places between stones were filled with fine chippings

6. Hand-packed stone varied in depth from about 8 in at the center of the road to about 4 in at the Launches

7. A crossfall over the half of the road is 4 in

8. Mc Adam dispensed with the carefully prepared foundation

9. This layer was compacted in the first place by ramming and later by traffi

Translate the following word-combinations

1. Road building material

2. A system of metalled roads

3. For military purposes

4. Until the following century

5. The erection of the suspension bridge

6. To give care full attention

7. As much as possible

8. Hand-packed stone

9. Two layers of broken stone