10. Subjunctives.

The subjunctive is a special form of the verb, mostly ‘should + infinitive’. ‘Should’, however, can be omitted.

E.g. The chairperson demanded that everybody should be quiet.

The chairperson demanded that everybody be quiet.

Most subjunctive forms are formal and are used after the verbs: suggest, propose, insist, demand, order, request, recommend, arrange, advise and certain adjectives: essential, necessary, advisable, important, desirable, odd, strange, etc.

E.g. Why do you insist that she should be told the truth?

It is essential that every child should have the same educational opportunities.

Note that the English subjunctive structures correspond to the Russian constructions with the past tense. Compare:

It is important for you to be present when we sign the papers.

Тебе важно присутствовать, когда мы будем подписывать бумаги.

It is important that you should be present when we sign the papers.

Важно, чтобы вы присутствовали, когда мы будем подписывать бумаги.

Unit 8 Modal Auxiliaries Can / Could

Can and could are used to talk about ability, to ask for and give permission, and to make requests and offers.

E.g. Can you speak French? (ability)

You can stop work early today. (permission)

Can I have some more tea? (request)

Can I help you? (offer)

‘Could’ is used to express ‘general ability’ – to say that somebody could do something at any time, whenever she/he wanted. ‘Was/were able’ is also possible here.

E.g. She could read when she was five. (OR: ‘She was able to read …’)

‘Could’ is not normally used to say that someone managed to do something on one occasion. Instead, ‘was/were able’ or ‘managed’ is used.

E.g. I was able (managed) to find a really nice dress in the sale.

(NOT: I could find.)

However, in negative clauses, and with negative or limiting adverbs like ‘only’ and ‘hardly’, ‘could’ is used to refer to one occasion.

E.g. I managed to find the street, but I couldn’t find her house.

I could only get one of his books.

She could hardly believe her eyes.

This structure is also used to criticize people about not doing things.

E.g. You could ask me before you borrow my car.

‘Could + perfect infinitive’ is used to express the same meaning in the past.

E.g. You could have told me you were getting married.

‘Can (can’t)’ and ‘could (couldn’t)’ are used to talk about permission and about things that are (are not) allowed by rules and laws.

E.g. Can one park on double yellow lines on Sundays?

You can’t park in front of a doorway.

In talking about the past ‘could’ is used to say that somebody had permission to do something at any time (general permission), but ‘could’ is not used to talk about permission for one particular action in the past.

E.g. When I was a child, I could watch TV when I wanted to.

Yesterday evening, Peter was allowed to watch TV for an hour.

(NOT … could watch …)

However, ‘could not’ is used to talk about one particular action that was not allowed.

E.g. Yesterday Peter could not watch TV because he was naughty.