Chapter

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Basic Concepts

The History of Human Performance						3
The Relevance of Human Performance in Aviation						5
The Pilot and Pilot Training						6
Aircraft Accident Statistics . . . . . . . . . .	. . . . . . . . .	. .	. .	.	.	7
Flight Safety						9
The Most Significant Flight Safety Equipment . .	. . . . . . . . . .	. .	. .	.		. 10
Safety Culture						10
Reason’s Swiss Cheese Model . . . . . . . .	. . . . . . . . . .	. .	. .	.		. 11
The Five Elements of Safety Culture . . . . . .	. . . . . . . . . .	. .	. .	.		. 12
Flight Safety/Threat and Error Management . . . .	. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Threats						12
Errors						12
Undesired Aircraft States						13
Duties of Flight Crew . . . . . . . . . . . .	. . . . . . . . .	. .	. .	.	.	13

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Concepts Basic 1

Human Factors is about people: it is about people in their working and living environments, and it is about their relationship with equipment, procedures and the environment. Just as important, it is about their relationship with other people. It involves the overall performance of human beings within the aviation system. Human Factors seeks to optimize the performance of people by the systematic application of the human sciences, often integrated within the framework of system engineering. Its twin objectives can be seen as safety and efficiency.

ICAO Human Factors Digest Number 1, 1989

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Basic Concepts 1

The History of Human Performance

In November 1783 the first manned balloon voyage took place. Two men took off from the grounds of the Chateau de la Muette in Paris in a Montgolfier hot air balloon and landed 25 minutes later, having drifted five miles and reached a height of 3000 feet. The trouble was, and still is, that balloons are non-steerable and are dependent on the wind to provide their horizontal motive power.

To overcome the non-steerability of balloons, it became obvious that a motive unit of some sort was needed to allow them to become a useful form of transport and the concept of the airship was formulated. It was not until 1852 that Henri Giffard was able to fly the first practical airship. Even at this early stage it was realized that the future of aviation lay not with balloons and airships but with heavier than air machines.

The first powered aeroplane to fly was a model steam powered aircraft designed and built by John Stringfellow in 1848. The first manned flight of a heavier than air machine, and the beginning of modern aviation, took place at Kittyhawk in 1903 when Orville Wright made a flight of 12 seconds in the aptly named ‘Wright Flyer’. This short duration flight ushered in an era which has probably seen a greater number of scientific advances than any other period in history.

With the aircraft came aircraft accidents. In the early decades of this century a great number of these accidents, indeed the majority, were caused by equipment failure or other factors outside the control of the operators. Over the last 30 to 40 years however the major cause of aircraft accidents has been human factors.

Airframes have become more reliable, modern engines and associated equipment seldom fail, navigational equipment (both in the aircraft and on the ground) has improved in leaps and bounds, giving a degree of accuracy undreamt of by the early pioneers of flying.

The improvement in the equipment available, allied with the advances in meteorological forecasting should have virtually eliminated aviation accidents except for the most freak conditions, but these accidents have not reduced at the rate one would expect from the advances of technology. The factor that has not changed is the human being. It is often seen in reports of aircraft accidents that the cause was ‘Pilot Error’ but, of course, a more correct reason would be ‘Human Error’.

It is unfortunate that errors occur at all stages of an aircraft’s life. Designers may make small arithmetical slips which may not be picked up, servicing personnel can put the wrong fuel and lubricants into engines or fit components incorrectly, operations and loading staff do get the weights wrong but the major contributions to flight safety can be achieved by educating the operating crew.

This publication is written to enable you, the future pilot, to appreciate the limitations of the human being in the aviation environment. Our bodies are designed to exist on the surface of the earth and a stable gravitational force. In aviation it is subject to new factors, among which are altitude, large changes in pressure, changes of gravitational forces, radiation and shortage of oxygen.

In the purely physical sense you will need to learn how to recognize the symptoms of oxygen deficiency and the effects of high g-forces or large changes of temperature. You should gain an appreciation of the problems brought about by stress and time zone changes as well as

Basic Concepts 1

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Concepts Basic 1

trying to organize sleep patterns which may be out of synchronisation with your internal body clock.

In addition to the physical problems associated with aviation you will need an appreciation of the psychological aspects of flying such as receiving information, assessing data, making decisions and carrying out the necessary actions to ensure the safe progress of your flight in all conditions. You will learn some of the ways in which mistakes occur and be able to reduce your personal errors to a minimum.

As a crew member, you will be flying with many contrasting personalities some of whom may be from very different cultural backgrounds from yourself. If you are a member of a large airline, you will be meeting your fellow crew members mostly for the first time. It is vital that you become adept in recognizing these different personalties and be able to work with them as a successful member of the group. A continuing study of both CRM and Human Performance will be your basic tool but the development of successful interpersonal skills must be an ongoing personal aim.

It is to be hoped that you will not have to face many emergencies in your flying career, except in the simulator, but to be forewarned is to be forearmed. Knowledge brings confidence and the following chapters are designed to increase your knowledge of yourself and your limitations.

The layout of these notes is designed to match the syllabus as taught at CAE Oxford Aviation Academy. These notes should be used as a reference and a revision aid. They do not necessarily contain all the material which you will receive during the course. Students are urged to complete the revision questions at the end of each chapter as well as the multi-choice papers found at the end of these notes.

Whereas every effort has been made to ‘compartmentalize’ the subject into different chapter headings, there is inevitable interchapter overlap. In these cases, repetition is used to highlight the common ground.

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