Communication and Cooperation

Grammar

In professional languages, grammar is simplified and reduced to a small core of rules which will not necessarily comply with the language grammar.

Metacommunications

The term metacommunications covers all the varieties of expression, body language, facial gestures, tone and pitch of voice etc. which enable effective communication. It has been shown that over 80% of all communication is achieved by factors other than the actual words spoken.

Non-verbal Communications

It would be possible for two people to communicate without the use of a single word. Simple signs could get over the idea that one individual is hungry and would like to share the others’s food or by simulating shivering could show that he/she requires shelter or warmth.

Briefings

Briefings can be a powerful means of transferring information; if properly given they can be extremely effective. If badly given they may be of little use and may even hamper the transfer of the information. To be effective a good briefing should be:

SHORT	Less than 10 ideas. Any more will either not be understood or items
	will be forgotten. It is better to split the briefing into sections and start
	again later if the standard version is too long.
INDIVIDUAL	For each flight.
UNDERSTOOD	By all crew members. A simple but well-understood plan of action,
	supported by all is preferable to a possibly brilliant but misunderstood
	plan.

Note: During briefings the aircraft Commander should always emphasize those areas requiring crew cooperation.

Communications to Achieve Coordination

Coordination of action may be described as one of three types:

•Redundant Actions

There may be a strict duplication of actions to achieve a total result (redundant actions). This is an exceptional case where the Captain and Co-pilot carry out the same actions to achieve the same short-term effect. As an example, both pilots may use a flight control to avoid an obstacle. Communication is used to coordinate completion of the action.

•Coaction

Coaction requires less precise coordination. Individuals work in the same environment on the same ‘site’, share the same general objectives but are relatively independent in carrying out their actions. Coaction is most often seen in the relationship between the flight and cabin crew. Communications in this scenario mainly serve to maintain group solidarity. An example of this would be a Captain briefing his/her Cabin Crew prior to an announcement of a diversion or inclement weather. Coaction can be defined as working in parallel to a common goal.

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•General Cooperation

In most cases the two pilots’ actions are somewhat different, designed to develop synergy and manage resources. This type is the general cooperation when communications are used to achieve a common image of the situation and to synchronize future actions.

Synchronization

Synchronization may be subdivided into: Cognitive and Temporal Synchronization:

•Cognitive Synchronization

This is when the two participants attempt to maintain a common image of the situation through the use of briefings or checklists. This is essential for the monitoring of any changes to control modes or flight parameters and to follow the sequence of planned actions.

•Temporal Synchronization

Is necessary both to trigger simultaneous actions (start the clock at take-off on full power) and to initiate successive actions e.g. wait until passing a set height before starting the drills for dealing with an emergency shortly after take-off.

Synergy in Joint Actions

Past Attitudes

In the early days of aviation the ‘best’ pilot was the one who was most adroit and possessed the greatest experience and endurance. In those days the passion for flying and determination for technical progress justified individuals pushing themselves and their machines to the limits and even beyond. Numerous records were broken and early pilots became heroes until, generally, an accident put an end to their activities.

Present Attitudes

In modern airline operations safety is the main preoccupation and there is no longer any question of ‘do it at all costs’. On the contrary, pilots must now develop the wisdom and knowledge to divert where necessary, delay take-off, increase fuel carried etc. Individual skills are proving no longer sufficient to achieve the level of safety required. Team work must be the basis for both normal operations and for dealing with unexpected circumstances.

Synergy

Synergy is the term used to describe the state where the group performance exceeds the sum of the individual performances.

Expressed as a simple mathematical statement, considering a crew of two:

1 + 1 = > 2

Good Synergy

Synergy is poor, or lacking altogether, when the group performance is less than the sum of individual performances.

1 + 1 = < 2

Poor Synergy

To achieve good synergy we need to consider how to improve resources and make the maximum use of cooperation and communication.

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Barriers to Crew Cooperation and Teamwork

Just as there are rules that, if followed, will assist crew communications and cooperation there are factors that will hinder the establishment of good synergy.

Certain personality types or individuals with specific attitudes are not only likely to have poor communication skills but they are also likely to make poor judgements in a problem resolving situation.

There are five special types of attitude that have been shown to be a major contributing factor in the inability to satisfactorily cope with accident/incident scenarios and are therefore especially dangerous in flight:

•Anti-authority: ‘Don’t tell me what to do!’

•Impulsive: ‘We must do something quick!’

•Invulnerable: ‘That can’t happen to me’

• Macho:

‘I’ll show them!’

• Resigned: ‘Too bad, there’s nothing more I can do’

Good Team Work

The essential conditions for good teamwork are:

•Team objectives are clearly understood by all members.

•All members are committed to the team objectives.

•Mutual trust is high.

•Support for one another is high.

•Communications are open and reliable - not guarded and cautious.

•Team members listen to one another; they understand and are understood.

•The team is self-controlling.

•Conflicts are accepted and worked through.

•Members’ abilities, knowledge and experience are fully used by the team.

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Summary

RULES TO IMPROVE CREW COOPERATION AND TEAMWORK

•Use a professional language.

•Respect the activities of others.

•Never abandon dialogue with other crew members to concentrate exclusively on dialogue with the machine.

•Use communication as a tool to mutual benefit.

•Comply with communication procedures (announcements of modes, altitudes etc. are the only guarantee that all the crew share the same model of the situation) and attempt to improve them.

Miscommunication

The following description of an accident caused by miscommunication is taken from The Private Pilot Manual published by Jeppesen Sanderson:

A Boeing 727-200 inadvertently landed with its gear retracted after the following miscommunication:

The First Officer, who was seated in the Captain’s seat, gave the order “gear down”.

The Captain, who was in the right seat and flying the aircraft, assumed the First Officer was stating that the gear was down.

The before-landing checklist was interrupted by a radio communication and never completed. The GPWS alerted the crew to “pull up”, due to the aircraft’s proximity to the ground with the gear retracted.

However, the Flight Engineer believed that the GPWS warning was caused by flaps not in the landing position. The Flight Engineer disengaged the GPWS system by pulling the circuit breaker and the warning was silenced.

When it was observed that the 727 was on final approach with the gear retracted, the Tower Controller radioed “go around” but used the wrong aircraft call sign.

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