Communication and Cooperation

Personal Space

In Western society we guard our personal space jealously - sitting or standing in close proximity to other than intimate friends unsettles us. If colleagues are sharing a desk, facing each other, they tend to resent spillover from their colleagues side into what they see as ‘their’ space and will move objects, openly or surreptitiously, back to the other side.

The side to side seating in the airline cockpit, rather than the front and back seating employed in some small aircraft, will still give each pilot his personal space. A panel of controls between the pilots will often increase the separation and maintain the concept of ‘our’ personal space.

The side by side seating may, however inhibit some aspects of communication and some pilots may find the space claustrophobic if the wall of instruments between the pilots takes up too much room.

Cockpit Communications

Introduction

Communication, whether direct or via computers, is the main tool used to ensure crew coordination. The early study of communications was limited to those points of interest to psychologists, linguistic experts and anthropologists. All of these studies have emphasized the need to train pilots in methods of communication in all situations by means of Crew Resource Management (CRM) and Line-Orientated Flight Training (LOFT) courses.

In more recent years, the intense automation of cockpits as well as the reduction in flight deck crew members has led to greater emphasis on the study of man-machine communications and communication via manuals, briefings, checklists, and announcements.

Communications are the vital interface between the various components of the SHELL model, whether the communication is between people or between the people and the machine. Poor communications are a factor in most system accidents/incidents whether the cause is human or technical.

Resources

Communication absorbs resources; we must be attentive to what we say and what we hear. Man’s resources however are limited and must be shared between current reasoning processes and actions. Consequently, communication efficiency is sensitive to variation in the workload and to interruptions.

Workload

An increased workload will tend to shorten communications and reduce the number of exchanges leading to an increased error rate. Communications can also cause distraction. If the pilot is carrying out a routine action then any communication could make him/her forget the action. This makes it vital that the person who has interrupted the pilot must remind the pilot of what he was doing before the interruption.

The reverse is also true; if the crew member one wishes to talk to is absorbed in a difficult task there is little chance he/she will understand what is said. If possible wait until the individual concerned has finished the task.

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Expectation

Expectation of communications has been a cause of a number of accidents. A typical example of this is when a crew expects their request to ATC to be “approved”. Should the content of the controller’s reply be clipped, unclear, too soft or spoken too quickly, there is the danger that the expected approval is assumed. Most such cases take place when shortage of time is an issue. This was one of a number of factors which led to the Tenerife disaster.

Interpersonal Differences

Personality and attitude may also act as a barrier to effective communication. An autocratic captain, a ‘chatty’ first officer, or a large age difference can all create an atmosphere prone to communication errors. As well as the words the tone and type of phrase used can also generate conflict.

Communications, and the quality of work, are the first to suffer from interhuman conflicts. Alternatively a change in tone and the creation of a warmer atmosphere are factors which tend to end conflicts. Speech is a multi-edged sword, sometimes improving synergy and sometimes a source of crisis.

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Intrapersonal Conflict

Intrapersonal conflict differs from interpersonal conflict in that intrapersonal is internal conflict within the individual him/herself. An example of this is the quandary a new co-pilot may experience when deciding whether or not to inform an irascible and senior captain of a flying error.

Conflict betweenVerbal Communication and Body Language

Confusion can be caused when the verbal information is at odds with body language. This tends to occur between differing cultures. An example might be a gentleman from India who shakes his head while giving verbal affirmation. Within his own culture the body language used emphasizes his words, but the mix when addressed to a Westerner may cause bewilderment.

Escalation of Conflict

Finally, it is important to remember that conflict tends to escalate. A small difference of opinion can build into a major personal confrontation which can, in extreme cases, turn to enmity and spread to other members of the crew. It is essential that intercrew conflict is knocked on the head early and turned into a an atmosphere of “contribution, collaboration and cooperation”.

Techniques for preventing or solving conflict include:

•Inquiry

Tactful inquiry should be used to clarify queries or overcome misunderstandings. The “open” question should be favoured since, in most cases, this leads to the most speedy clarification.

•Active Listening

Concentrate on what is being said to you. Don’t plan what you are going to say while the other person is still speaking. The transmitter may still be giving vital data. In ordinary conversation, it often provokes the other person to do likewise, and escalates, until both parties are virtually talking to themselves. Be prepared to change your viewpoint in light of what is being said to you.

It is also important to reassure and to signal to the transmitter that you are actively listening. Nothing is more discouraging than trying to communicate with someone who appears not

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to be listening. The normal human reaction is resentment which will only increase the level
of conflict. These reassuring signals can be either verbal or non-verbal (such as eye contact,
nodding, smiling).
If you are the recipient of a lengthy piece of information, there is a danger that your attention
may start to wander and, in order to retain active listening, the technique of “summarizing”
can be employed. Stop the flow of information by saying, for instance, “in summary are you
saying that .................	?” Thereby you are:
• Retaining your active listening
• Ensuring that you are understanding the information being passed
• Clarifying any misunderstandings
• Reassuring your crew member that you are still with him/her
• Advocacy
Advocacy is the argument for or against a cause. There is seldom call for advocacy in flight
other than to support a view of another member of the crew when reaching a group
decision. Tact and diplomacy should accompany advocacy and it may be used to clarify or
emphasize a point of view that has been offered.
• Feedback
Take the trouble to obtain feedback to ensure that what you are trying to communicate has		13
been fully understood. Feedback should also be volunteered if there is any possibility of a
• Metacommunication		Cooperation
misunderstanding.
Tonal presentation or body language can go a long way to help defuse conflict. If a forceful		and
point of view must be made, it may become more acceptable if it is accompanied with
		Communication
tactful or non-aggressive body language/tone of voice.
• Negotiation
Although negotiation is a tool for countering conflict on the ground it should rarely be used
in flight. Negotiation implies that gains are sought for concessions given. The role of the
Commander, should circumstances so dictate, is that of an arbitrator and not a negotiator.
He/she is responsible for an ultimate decision.
• Arbitration
Should there be conflict in the cockpit, it is the clear duty of the Commander to arbitrate.
Having made his/her decision, the reasons for coming to that decision should always be
communicated to the crew. If time does not permit this feedback in the air, the Commander
should ensure that the crew are informed of his/her reasons in a post-flight brief.
• Culture
Research into cultural aspects of aeronautics emphasized that the difference between pilots
belonging to different cultures depended very little on technical knowledge but far more on
communications and personal relationships. Some cultural differences with regard to face
saving, the role of gender and a background in a hierarchical society can hinder the passage
of effective information. An expression - and more commonly body signal/language - which
is quite acceptable in one culture can be deeply insulting or incomprehensible in another.

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Communication and Cooperation

The Increased Importance ofVerbal Communications in the Cockpit

Since aircrew often sit side-by-side and facing forward, body language is severely curtailed. Therefore in the cockpit improved verbal communication techniques must make up for the deficiency. Thus:

•Greater care must be taken over the choice of words.

•Sentences should be shortened.

•Phrases should be simple and unambiguous.

•Information should be “parcelled” into one subject at a time.

•Words should be clearly annunciated.

•Speech should be slightly slower than normal.

•A response must be expected and given to confirm that the information has been received correctly.

Examples of Cockpit Miscommunication

Some classic examples of miscommunication in the cockpit are listed below:

Statement	Interpretation
“Back - on the power”	“Back on - the power”
“Take-Off Power”	“Take off power”
“Feather Four”	“Feather (all) four”
“Feather One”	Which one?
“Cheer up”	“Gear up”

Professional Languages

Introduction

Professionals in any field use technical languages which are much less subject to ambiguity and are more economical when communicating amongst themselves. Without a professional language there would be chaos in such fields as medicine, where worldwide acceptance of Latin names for parts of the body is the norm.

Vocabulary

An analysis of the messages transmitted by air traffic controllers shows that the total vocabulary used is less than 500 words. The meanings of words used can be unusual in general language or not even part of normal vocabulary. The context in which the words are used makes them unambiguous. For example the word ‘pressure’ could have very different meaning to a psychiatrist, a family doctor, a meteorologist or an engineer. The context however will leave little room for doubt. If a surgeon asks the anaesthetist for the pressure he will be given the systolic and diastolic blood pressure in mm Hg, not the atmospheric pressure in hectopascals.

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