Chapter

9

Behaviour and Motivation

An Introduction to Behaviour . . . . . .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	.	169
Categories of Behaviour . . . . . . . .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	.	169
Evaluating Data . . . . . . . . . . . .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .		.171
Situational Awareness . . . . . . . . .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	.	172
Motivation										173
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .		.177
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	. .	.	180

167

9		Behaviour and Motivation

Motivation and Behaviour 9

168

Behaviour and Motivation		9

An Introduction to Behaviour

Jens Rasmussen, a Danish ergonomics author, introduced a three level activity control model in the 1980s. This model, the ’SRK’ model, is particularly suitable for explaining pilots’ learning techniques and their actions.

S	=	SKILL-BASED BEHAVIOUR
R	=	RULE-BASED BEHAVIOUR
K	=	KNOWLEDGE-BASED BEHAVIOUR

Categories of Behaviour

Skill-based Behaviour

Skill-based behaviour is that which is based on stored routines or motor programmes that have been learned by practice and repetition and which may be executed without conscious thought. This category of behaviour, and the possibilities of errors (Action Slip and Environmental Capture - sometimes known as Routine Errors) has been covered in Chapter 8.

It is important to note that errors in skill do not occur in novices since they normally have to think about each action. Skill-based errors only occur in those with experience.

Errors of this sort are more likely when he/she is preoccupied, tired or when good conditions may have led to relaxation.

Rule-based Behaviour

Rule-based behaviour is that for which a routine or procedure has been learned. Unlike skills it always requires a conscious decision to initiate the behaviour. Consider the case of being asked to fly from Oxford to Amsterdam. One cannot say “I’ve never done that before, I can’t go”.

The rule-based behaviours would be to follow the set procedures for correct preparation of the flight. References will be made to the correct maps and documents to obtain the required information of the route, the relevant NOTAMS will be checked, weather information collated, details of the destination aerodrome will be looked up and noted, customs and immigration regulations may be needed and so on.

Two other examples of rule-based behaviour would be following a Terminal Approach Chart prior to landing and calling out Search and Rescue agencies.

In short, there are a set of rules that have been learned that should cover any normal flight. Rule-based behaviours are not only written down, most are stored in our long-term memory, such as emergency drills, instrument procedures, collision avoidance action, and many more. Short-term memory is also clearly involved to maintain an appreciation of the current situation. It is in the field of procedural training that simulation is used most thoroughly since pilots cannot practise many emergencies whilst actually flying.

Some procedures are too complicated to be reliably memorized and thus must be kept in some documentary form such as checklists. Even in these cases, the pilot must retain a basic memory of how to access the correct information, and this must be practised. Thus the general practice is to learn the immediate actions for an emergency, and complete subsequent actions from the check list.

Behaviour and Motivation 9

169

9		Behaviour and Motivation

Motivation and Behaviour 9

Generally speaking, procedures should be committed to documentation unless they will need to be exercised under circumstances that might prohibit document consultation - perhaps because of restricted time (for example a rejected take-off).

Rule-based behaviours are generally robust in practice and have many strengths. Standardised procedures enable each crew member to know what other crew members should do in a selected situation, thereby acting as monitors of each others actions.

Errors of Rule-based Behaviour

Error of Commission

Error of commission is probably the most common error associated with rule-based behaviour. This is caused by the initial misidentification of a problem and engaging the wrong procedure entirely. For example an auditory warning may cause the crew to action depressurisation drills when the action required is for propeller overspeed. Even when the identification of the problem is correct, it is still possible to apply an inappropriate rule.

Departure from the Rules

Errors may also arise when the pilot believes it is safe to depart from the procedure. For example, aircraft have been flown into the ground when a GPWS warning has been ignored even though many airlines make it mandatory to apply maximum pitch up and full power on receipt of this warning on all occasions.

Once a set of circumstances have been reliably identified, it is almost invariably advisable to complete the standard procedure if one is available.

Knowledge-based Behaviour

Knowledge based behaviour is that for which no procedure has been learned. It requires the pilot to evaluate information, then use his knowledge and experience (airmanship) to design a plan for dealing with the situation.

Decision making is carried out by the central decision maker shown in Figure 8.1 and requires all the information available to the pilot from his environment and memory. Automated controls for all stages of flight have now reached the stage where they perform better than the pilot under normal procedural conditions, but the pilot must remain, for the foreseeable future, to think, reason and evaluate the unexpected.

Knowledge-based behaviour requires an individual to draw on data stored in long-term memory to derive a course of action. It is affected by such factors as the completeness and accuracy of mental models. Knowledge-based behaviour enables a pilot to deal with non-routine or unfamiliar situations/problems.

Errors of Knowledge-based Behaviour

Errors can take a wide variety of forms, none of which are necessarily predictable on the basis of the individual’s experience and knowledge level.

However, some factors that may have a profound effect are:

•Incomplete or inaccurate mental models. This can be due either to ambiguous data or an incorrect association with incidents experienced in the past.

•Overconfidence.

170