116 A Reference Grammar of Russian

Simplest and oldest is plain {-a- : -aj-|e|}, which was used in the oldest layer of derivation, old unprefixed pairs (kbi∫nm/kbiƒnm ‘deprive’; hti∫nm/htiƒnm ‘decide’, ,hj´cbnm/,hjcƒnm ‘throw’). It is still used with many i-Conjugation verbs, with which it now implies Cj (-ghƒdbnm/-ghfdkz´nm ‘direct’). For this class of verbs, this older option is in competition with the more recent and productive strategy (see below). This suffix, with C0, is used by obstruent stems (-g†xm/-gtrƒnm ‘bake’; -;ƒnm/-;bvƒnm ‘squeeze’).

A variant with a preceding [v] -- that is, {-va- : -vaj-|e|} -- is used when the perfective stem ends in a vowel: with {CVC-e- : CVC-ej-|e|} (-gjn†nm/-gjntdƒnm) and with asuffixal verbs (-,∫nm/-,bdƒnm; -lénm/-ledƒnm; -lƒnm/-lfdƒnm). A variant is {CC-eva- : CC-evaj-|e|}, for the few roots of the shape {CC-i- : CC-|i|}: pfnv∫nm/ pfnvtdƒnm ‘eclipse’.

The newest and most productive strategy, which yields derived verbs of the type {-iva- : -ivaj-|e|}, is applied to: i-Conjugation verbs (-vjkjn∫nm/-vjkƒxbdfnm ‘thresh’), with a vowel alternation and (usually) Cj grade in the root-final consonant; verbs of the type {CVC-a- : CVCj-|e|}, with C0 maintained (-gbcƒnm/-g∫csdfnm ‘write’); verbs of the type {CVC-a- : CVC-aj-|e|}, with C0 maintained (-l†kfnm/ -l†ksdfnm ‘do); and perhaps semelfactives of the form {CVC-nu- : CVC-n-|e|} ([kj´gyenm/-[kj´gsdfnm ‘clap’). In these cases the original conjugational suffix disappears (although with {CVC-i : CVC-|i|} the suffix leaves a trace in the mutation to Cj). This suffix is applied to {CVC-ovƒ- : CVC-új-|e|} verbs, when it gives

{-ov-iva- : -ov-ivaj-|e|} (-njhujdƒnm/-njhuj´dsdfnm ‘trade’). In this instance, the orig-

⁄ ⁄

inal conjugational suffix remains.

3.3 Declension of pronouns

3.3.1 Personal pronouns

The declension of personal pronouns (first, second, and reflexive) and of interrogative pronouns is idiosyncratic in various respects (see Table 3.10).

The reflexive pronoun declines like the second singular pronoun, except for the fact that it does not have a nominative form. All personal pronouns and the animate interrogative rnj´ use the genitive form for the accusative (§§3.6.1, 4.1.6); the inanimate interrogative xnj´ does not. The instrumentals vyj´q, nj,j´q, cj,j´q allow a variant with {-u} (vyj´/, etc.) in the formal register, if the pronoun is prosodically autonomous, for example as a predicate argument ([3]) or the agent of a passive ([4]):

[3]Crerf dct ,jkmit jdkfltdfkf vyj/<ins> . Boredom ever more took hold of me.

Inf lectional morphology 117

Table 3.10 Declension of personal and interrogative pronouns

	1sg	2sg	rfl	1pl	2pl	intg an	intg in
nom	z´	nß	---	vß	dß	rnj´	xnj´
acc	=gen	=gen	=gen	=gen	=gen	=gen	=nom
gen	vtyz´	nt,z´	ct,z´	yƒc	dƒc	rjuj´	xtuj´
dat	vy†	nt,†	ct,†	yƒv	dƒv	rjvé	xtvé
loc	vy†	nt,†	ct,†	yƒc	dƒc	rj´v	x=v
ins	vyj´q	nj,j´q	cj,j´q	yƒvb	dƒvb	r†v	x†v

Table 3.11 Third-person pronouns

msc	msc=nt	nt	fem	pl
nom j´y	=gen	jyj´	jyƒ	jy∫
acc			=gen	=gen
gen	tuj´ ytuj´		t= yt= (y†q)	∫[ y∫[
dat	tvé ytvé		†q y†q	∫v y∫v
loc	y=v		y†q	y∫[
ins	∫v y∫v		†q †/ y†/ y†q	∫vb y∫vb

[4]Nfr vyj/<ins> htifkfcm pflfxf.

That is how the problem used to get solved by me.

3.3.2 Third-person pronouns

Third-person pronouns, which by origin are demonstratives, distinguish gender, and have a declension similar to that of demonstratives (§3.3.3).

Like personal pronouns, third-person pronouns always express the accusative by using the genitive (or “animate”) form, even when they do not refer to animates (§4.1.6). Third-person pronouns occur with a preceding linking consonant ≤y≥ when they are governed by a preposition. The feminine instrumental form allows a somewhat old-fashioned variant y†/ with prepositions, which occurs more frequently than vyj´/:14

[5]Jy crhskcz c yt/<ins> . He disappeared with her.

[6]Vt;le yt/<ins> b vyjq djpybrkf ,jkmifz lhe;,f. Between her and me there arose a close friendship.

14 Zalizniak 1977[a]:65. In text counts in the conservative usage of memoirist S. Golitsyn (Zapiski utselevshego [Moscow, 1990]), yt/ was actually more frequent, by 29 xx to ytq 27 xx, with gthtl, c, yfl, gjl. In the Uppsala Corpus, ytq predominated over yt/ with these prepositions (ytq 157 xx/191 xx = 82%). On www.lib.ru <15.IX.02>, ytq with these prepositions occurred 80 percent of the time (ytq 23,144 xx / 28,795 xx total).

118 A Reference Grammar of Russian

Table 3.12 Declension of …njn, nj´n

	msc	msc=nt	nt	fem	pl
nom	…njn nj´n		…nj nj´	…nf nƒ	…nb n†
acc	=nom<in>		=nom	…ne né	=nom<in> gen<an>
	gen<an>

gen	…njuj njuj´
dat	…njve njvé
loc	…njv nj´v
ins	…nbv n†v

…njq nj´q	…nb[ n†[
…njq nj´q	…nbv n†v
…njq nj´q	…nb[ n†[
…njq nj´q	…nbvb n†vb

Table 3.13 Declension of rfrj´q (nfrj´q)

	msc	msc=nt nt	fem	pl
nom	rfrj´q	rfrj´t	rfrƒz	rfr∫t
acc	=nom<in> gen<an>	=nom	rfré/	=nom<in> gen<an>
gen		rfrj´uj	rfrj´q	rfr∫[
dat		rfrj´ve	rfrj´q	rfr∫v
loc		rfrj´v	rfrj´q	rfr∫[
ins		rfr∫v	rfrj´q	rfr∫vb

In informal Russian e y†q is possible instead of e yt= when it has weak stress ([7]):15

[7]Kbwj e ytq ,skj gjhfpbntkmyjq rhfcjns. That face of hers was of astounding beauty.

3.3.3 Determiners (demonstrative, possessive, adjectival pronouns)

Determiners, like adjectives, agree with a modified noun in gender--number and case. The declensions of the two demonstratives, proximate э´njn and distal nj´n (Table 3.12) are similar, except for the vowel of the ending in the instrumental singular and the plural. Determiners express animacy depending on the reference of the noun they modify (or refer to). If the noun is animate and either masculine singular or plural of any gender, the demonstrative uses the genitive form for the accusative. These demonstratives and all other elements with adjectival declension allow an archaic variant with an extra syllable in the instrumental feminine singular: э´nj/.

Nfrj´q ‘such’ and rfrj´q ‘what kind of’ have purely adjectival declension (§3.5.1).

15 In Golitsyn and the Uppsala Corpus, there was a total of 313 xx e ytt against 6 xx e ytq, or 98 percent. On www.lib.ru <15.IX.02>, e ytt occurred 95 percent of the time (e ytt 14,600 xx / 15,386 xx total).

Inf lectional morphology 119

Table 3.14 Declension of y†rbq

	msc	msc=nt	nt		fem		pl
nom	y†rbq		y†rjt	y†rfz			y†rbt
acc	=nom<in>		=nom	y†re/			=nom<in>
gen	gen<an>	(oy†rjuj) y†rjtuj		y†rjq		y†rjtq	gen<an>
							y†rb[ (†y†rjb[)
dat		(oy†rjve) y†rjtve		y†rjq		y†rjtq	y†rbv (†y†rjbv)
loc		(oy†rjv) y†rjtv		y†rjq		y†rjtq	y†rb[ (†y†rjb[)
ins		y†rbv (†y†rjbv)		y†rjq		y†rjtq	y†rbvb (†y†rjbvb)

o = innovative, not standard

† = archaic

Table 3.15 Declension of yƒi (dƒi), ndj´q (vj´q, cdj´q)

	msc	msc=nt	nt	fem	pl
nom	yƒi ndj´q		yƒit ndj=	yƒif ndjz´	yƒib ndj∫
acc	=nom<in>		=nom	yƒie ndj÷	=nom<in>
	gen<an>	yƒituj ndjtuj´		yƒitq ndj†q	gen<an>
gen					yƒib[ ndj∫[
dat		yƒitve ndjtvé		yƒitq ndj†q	yƒibv ndj∫v
loc		yƒitv ndj=v		yƒitq ndj†q	yƒib[ ndj∫[
ins		yƒibv ndj∫v		yƒitq ndj†q	yƒibvb ndj∫vb

The indefinite existential adjective y†rbq, stylistically old-fashioned, has a declension containing some archaisms (e.g., msc gen sg y†rjtuj) alongside adaptations to a more productive pattern of declension (e.g., loc pl y†rb[ for older y†rjb[).

The elaborated demonstratives э´lfrbq, э´nfrbq ‘such a’ decline just like any adjective whose stem ends in the consonant [k] (uhj´vrbq ‘loud’).

3.3.4 Possessive adjectives: 1SG vjq, 2SG ndjq, 1PL yfi, 2PL dfi, reflexive cdjq, interrogative xtq

Possessive adjectives of personal pronouns -- 1sg vj´q, 2sg ndj´q, 1pl yƒi, 2pl dƒi, reflexive cdj´q -- decline in a fashion similar to э´njn (Table 3.15). Dƒi declines like yƒi, vj´q and cdj´q like ndj´q. To express possession by a third person, Russian uses the etymological genitive forms of the third-person pronoun msc=nt tuj´, fem t=, pl ∫[, invariant forms that do not agree in gender--number and case with the modified noun. (The true adjective ∫[ybq is substandard.) There are some differences between tuj´, t=, ∫[ used as genitives and used as possessives. As possessives, tuj´, t=, ∫[ do not elicit the ligature {n} after prepositions:

120 A Reference Grammar of Russian

Table 3.16 Declension of x†q

	msc	msc=nt nt	fem	pl
nom	x†q	xm=	xmz´	xm∫
acc	=nom<in> gen<an>	=nom	xm÷	=nom<in> gen<an>
gen		xmtuj´	xm†q	xm∫[
dat		xmtvé	xm†q	xm∫v
loc		xm=v	xm†q	xm∫[
ins		xm∫v	xm†q	xm∫vb

Table 3.17 Declension of d†cm, c†q

	msc	msc=nt	nt	fem	pl
nom	d†cm c†q		dc= cb†	dcz´ cbz´	dc† cb∫
acc	=nom<in>		=nom	dc÷ cb÷	=nom<in> gen<an>
	gen<an>

gen	dctuj´ ctuj´
dat	dctvé ctvé
loc	dc=v c=v
ins	dc†v c∫v

dc†q c†q	dc†[ c∫[
dc†q c†q	dc†v c∫v
dc†q c†q	dc†[ c∫[
dc†q c†q	dc†vb c∫vb

Table 3.18 Declension of cƒv

	msc	msc=nt nt	fem	pl
nom	cƒv	cfvj´	cfvƒ	cƒvb
acc	=nom<in> gen<an>	=nom	cfvé (†cfvj=)	=nom<in> gen<an>
gen		cfvjuj´	cfvj´q	cfv∫[
dat		cfvjvé	cfvj´q	cfv∫v
loc		cfvj´v	cfvj´q	cfv∫[
ins		cfv∫v	cfvj´q	cfv∫vb

† = archaic

d ∫[ rj´vyfnt ‘in their room’ but d y∫[ ‘inside them’, jn tuj´ jrhe;†ybz ‘from its surroundings’ but jn ytuj´ ‘from it’. In event nominals, for arguments analogous to subjects of intransitive predicates, only possessives, not true genitive pronouns, are possible: {t= yƒi} ghb[j´l ‘{her our} arrival’, j {tuj´ vj=v} jnxƒzybb ‘about {his my} despair’ but not ghb[j´l vtyz´, jnxƒzybt vtyz´. The fact that tuj´, t=, ∫[ are used here suggests that they are analogous to possessive adjectives. The interrogative (relative, indefinite) possessive x†q ‘whose’ has a declension similar to the demonstratives (Table 3.16).