Inf lectional morphology 123

hundred’, ctvmcj´n ‘seven hundred’, djctvmcj´n ‘eight hundred’, ltdznmcj´n ‘nine hundred’ -- are compounds which should decline both parts. The oblique forms of the low hundreds in less-than-standard Russian sometimes use forms analogically based on the genitive; [8--11] were attested on the web <20.XII.01> with substandard forms (marked “§”).

[8]Xbckj gjcnhflfdib[ ghb,bpbkjcm r ldevcnfv<dat> (§lde[cnfv<dat> ). The number of victims approached two hundred.

[9]Vs ujdjhbkb j lde[cnf[<loc> (§lde[cjn<gen=loc> ) yf[crj-uthvfycrb[ ktrcbxtcrb[ gfhhfktkz[.

We remarked on two hundred Nakh-Germanic lexical parallels.

[10]Vэqkth vj;tn hf,jnfnm c ,jktt xtv ldevzcnfvb<ins> (§lde[cnfvb<ins> ) vjltvfvb.

The mailer program can work with more than two hundred modems.

[11]Эnj ,skj yt nhelyj, yj lkz Dekmaf, c tuj nhtvzcnfvb<ins> djcmvm/ltcznm/<ins> (§nht[cnfvb<ins> djcmvbltcznm/<ins> ) aeynfvb, <. . .>

That was not difficult, but for Wolf, with his three hundred eighty pounds,

<. . .>

The ordinals of the hundreds are built from genitives: nh=[cj´nsq ‘three hundredth’, itcnbcj´nsq ‘six hundredth’, etc.

Collectives: Collective numerals (ldj´t ‘twosome’, nhj´t ‘threesome’, x†ndthj ‘foursome’) have a plural adjectival declension in oblique cases: gen=loc xtndthß[, dat xtndthßv, ins xtndthßvb.

Pronominal approximates: Approximates such as crj´kmrj ‘how many’ follow the declensional strategy of collectives: gen=loc crj´kmrb[, dat crj´kmrbv, ins crj´kmrbvb. ‘Both’, which distinguishes gender throughout, declines in this fashion (msc=nt nom=acc j´,f, gen j,j´b[; fem nom j´,t, fem gen j,†b[, and so on).

Nßczxf ‘thousand’ and vbkkbj´y ‘million’ decline like ordinary nouns. Nßczxf has two instrumental forms, nominal nßczxtq and numeral-like nßczxm/ (§4.3.4).

3.5 Adjectives

3.5.1 Adjectives

Long ago, adjectives had a “short” declensional ending identical to those of substantives; the “long” forms are an innovation. The process of replacing short forms by long forms has been a gradual one, extending over a thousand years.

124 A Reference Grammar of Russian

Table 3.21 Declension of adjectives: rhƒcysq ‘ beautiful’, lƒkmybq ‘ far’

	msc	msc=nt	nt	fem	pl
nom	rhƒcysq		rhƒcyjt	rhƒcyfz	rhƒcyst
acc	=nom<in> gen<an>		=nom	rhƒcye/	=nom<in> gen<an>
gen		rhƒcyjuj		rhƒcyjq	rhƒcys[
dat		rhƒcyjve		rhƒcyjq	rhƒcysv
loc		rhƒcyjv		rhƒcyjq	rhƒcys[
ins		rhƒcysv		rhƒcyjq	rhƒcysvb
	msc	msc=nt	nt	fem	pl
nom	lƒkmybq		lƒkmytt	lƒkmyzz	lƒkmybt
acc	=nom<in> gen<an>		=nom	lƒkmy//	=nom<in> gen<an>
gen		lƒkmytuj		lƒkmytq	lƒkmyb[
dat		lƒkmytve		lƒkmytq	lƒkmybv
loc		lƒkmytv		lƒkmytq	lƒkmyb[
ins		lƒkmybv		lƒkmytq	lƒkmybvb

By the nineteenth century, the long forms had won out in all contexts except the strictly predicative context, the only context in which the original nominal “short” forms are still preserved (see §5.2).

Long-form adjectives decline like demonstratives, except that adjectives have heavy (VC or VCV) endings in the nominative and accusative. Adjectives can have either hard stems (Table 3.21, rhƒcysq ‘red’) or soft stems (Table 3.21, lƒkmybq ‘far’). Soft-stem adjectives differ from hard-stem adjectives only in the spelling of vowel letters. In certain adjectives the first or only vowel of the endings is stressed in all forms, as in msc gen sg vjkjlj´uj ‘young’, gen=loc pl vjkjlß[, etc.; if so, the msc nom sg form is -j´q: msc nom sg vjkjlj´q. There is no distinction of gender in the plural declension of adjectives. Animacy is expressed in the masculine singular and in the plural, by using the genitive form for the accusative (§4.1.6). Adjectives and participles allow an archaic, poetic instrumental form: fem ins sg rhƒcyj/, lƒkmyt/, elƒhbdit/.

Participles are declined as adjectives. Participles are formed using certain characteristic consonants -- ≤o≥ in the present tense and ≤i≥ in the past tense -- and have the appropriate spellings of vowel letters after these consonants: ≤b≥ not ≤s≥, ≤t≥ not ≤j≥, ≤e≥ and ≤f≥.

In participles, reflexive verbs use the full syllable of the reflexive affix, both after consonants (msc=nt ins sg jnlf÷obvcz ‘surrendering to’, fem ins sg elƒhbditqcz ‘having bumped against’) and after vowels (msc=nt gen sg jnlf÷otujcz, elƒhbditujcz).

Inf lectional morphology 125

Table 3.22 Declension of participles: jnlf÷obq ‘ giving away’, elƒhbdibq ‘ having hit’

	msc	msc=nt	nt	fem	pl
nom	jnlf÷obq		jnlf÷ott	jnlf÷ofz	jnlf÷obt
acc	=nom<in>		=nom	jnlf÷oe/	=nom<in>
	gen<an>				gen<an>
gen		jnlf÷otuj		jnlf÷otq	jnlf÷ob[
dat		jnlf÷otve		jnlf÷otq	jnlf÷obv
loc		jnlf÷otv		jnlf÷otq	jnlf÷ob[
ins		jnlf÷obv		jnlf÷otq	jnlf÷obvb
	msc	msc=nt	nt	fem	pl
nom	elƒhbdibq		elƒhbditt	elƒhbdifz	elƒhbdibt
acc	=nom<in>		=nom	elƒhbdie/	=nom<in>
	gen<an>				gen<an>
gen		elƒhbdituj		elƒhbditq	elƒhbdib[
dat		elƒhbditve		elƒhbditq	elƒhbdibv
loc		elƒhbditv		elƒhbditq	elƒhbdib[
ins		elƒhbdibv		elƒhbditq	elƒhbdibvb

3.5.2 Predicative (‘‘short”) adjectives

The short-form adjectives, which were originally nominative case forms identical to those of nouns, have no ending in the masculine singular (or {-º}), {-o} in the neuter singular, {-a} in the feminine, and {-i} in the plural (spelled ≤s≥ with hard stems). Many adjectives were suffixed. Productive suffixes were mn > {-n-} and (k > {-k-}. The jer of these suffixes would have been lost in all forms except the masculine nominative singular, when the jer was vocalized. The synchronic result is that the masculine nominative singular of short adjectives takes fullgrade vocalism. The suffix {-k-} usually takes <o> and leaves the consonant unaffected (C0 grade): épjr, rh†gjr (but uj´hmrbq ‘bitter’, uj´htr). The suffix {-n-}, by virtue of its m, once palatalized the preceding consonant. The earlier Ci that resulted is still visible in, for example, msc sg short léhty ‘bad’, n=vty ‘dark’, or, under stress, ev=y. However, since all paired consonants except l have lost palatalization before the [n], the consonants are no longer palatalized in other forms (the restricted Ci grade): lehyj´q, n=vysq, though [l˛] is maintained, l†kmysq ‘effective’.

The small number of stems that ended in an etymological cluster CR have been under pressure to develop an anaptyctic vowel in the masculine singular short (nominative) form, when no vowel follows the cluster. Some develop full-grade vocalism: gj´kjy ‘full’, cd†ntk ‘light’, x=hty ‘dark’, [bn=h ‘clever’, while jcn=h j´cnh

126 A Reference Grammar of Russian

Table 3.23 Stress in short-form adjectives

	{R}	{RM}	{M}	{M(E)}	{ME}	{(M)E}	{E}
	e÷nysq	,éhysq	kƒlysq	uhz´pysq	rhƒcysq	cd†;bq	évysq
	‘comfortable’	‘stormy’	‘harmonious’	‘dirty’	‘beautiful’	‘fresh’	‘intelligent’
msc	e÷nty	,éhty	kƒlty	uhz´pty	rhƒcty	cd†;	ev=y
nt	e÷nyj	,éhyj	kƒlyj	uhz´pyj	rhƒcyj´	cdt;j´	evyj´
pl	e÷nys	,éhys	kƒlys	uhz´pys	rhƒcyß	cd†;∫	evyß
fem	e÷nyf	,éhyƒ	kflyƒ	uhzpyƒ	rhfcyƒ	cdt;ƒ	evyƒ

{XY} = historically mixed type combining paradigm X and paradigm Y

{(X)Y} = historically mixed type combining paradigm X and paradigm Y, contribution of X less prominent

ƒ . . . ß (etc.) = alternate stresses

‘sharp’ and iecn=h iécnh ‘bright, sharp’ have variation. G=cnhsq ‘variegated’ maintains the cluster (g=cnh).

Passive participles have a single [n] in short forms (eytc=y, eytctyƒ) but double [nn] in long forms (eytc=yysq). In certain adjectives there is a double consonant in long forms, which is retained in the short forms: ∫crhtyybq ‘genuine’, msc sg ∫crhtyty, fem sg ∫crhtyyf, nt sg ∫crhtyyt ∫crhtyyj, pl ∫crhtyyb ∫crhtyys; cfvjed†htyysq ‘self-confident’, fem cfvjed†htyyf, nt -tyyj, pl -tyys

(though msc sg cfvjed†hty). Both consonants are kept if the adjective derives from a noun ending in [n]: hfpyjcnjhj´yybq ‘many-sided’, msc hfpyjcnjhj´yty, fem hfpyjcnjhj´yyz (cnjhjyƒ ‘side’).

Most soft-stem adjectives are originally suffixed, like hfpyjcnjhj´yybq or lƒkmybq. They have a hard [n] in the masculine: ,tcrhƒty ‘limitless’ (<,tcrhƒqybq). The rare unsuffixed soft-stem adjective c∫ybq keeps C i, c∫ym ‘blue’.

In the vast majority of adjectives, the root is stressed and remains so in all short forms. In a limited number of adjectives, the ending of some short forms can be stressed (Table 3.23).16

There are three old patterns -- stem-stressed {R}, mobile {M} (stress on the ending only in the feminine), and end-stressed {E} -- and some innovative transitional patterns, in which end stress is more likely in the feminine than in the plural and neuter. The masculine forms are somewhat independent. It is difficult to predict what stable patterns will result from this gradation of patterns. After {R}, which is by far the predominant pattern, only {(M)E}, a transitional pattern, has any noticeable frequency, the other patterns being residual.

16 Zalizniak 1977[a]:33, 59--60, though with different ordering and notation; also SRIa 1.59--60.