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[224]Gjtplrb эnb z jxtym k/,bk, d ujcnz[ vtyz eujofkb, f rhjvt njuj, ,f,eirf lfdfkf<if pst> vyt ltytu<gen> , xnj,s z regbk e nhfvdfqyjq rjylernjhib ,bktns.

I loved those trips, as a guest I got treats, and furthermore, grandma used to give me money so that I could buy tickets from the tram conductor.

Declension<I> has an alternate ending in the genitive singular, {-u} instead of {-a}. This “second genitive” (gen2) is most usual in the partitive function (§5.5).

Archaically in folk texts, the partitive genitive could be used if the time was understood as partitive -- as a delimited quantity -- even if the object itself was a concrete object:35

[225]Lfq vyt ndjtuj yj;f!

Give me your knife [for a moment]!

Related to the partitive genitive is what might be termed the m e t r i c genitive, the use of the genitive for the object of verbs that measure the quantity of the affected entity against some implicit standard of sufficiency. The prefix yf- derives verbs that do this. They normally govern the genitive ([226]), except when the object is headed by a quantifier or a noun that itself is a measure ([227]):

[226]Z yfltkfk ukegjcntq<gen> . I did a lot of stupid things.

[227]Z yfltkfk {vyjuj<acc> ( vyjub[<gen> ) rexe<acc> ( rexb<gen> )} ukegjcntq. I did {many a pile of} dumb things.

5.4.4 Object genitive of negation

Objects of negated transitive verbs regularly appear in the genitive, although the accusative is not infrequent.36 In memoiristic prose written by mature writers in the 1960s through the 1990s, the genitive was used in about two-thirds to three-quarters of all instances.

Among the various factors or contexts, one can distinguish (a) those relating to the force of negation; (b) the temporal-aspectual-modal qualities of the predicate in context; and (c) properties of the argument itself.

35Jakobson 1936/1971[b]:n. 6.

36Timberlake 1975 lists factors that favor or retard the use of the genitive of negation. Following the statistical work of Mustajoki 1985, Ueda 1992 documents a dozen factors that have statistically meaningful effects (individuation, aspectuality-modality, etc.). Some factors mentioned earlier in the literature are apparently illusory: imperatives; exclamatives; word order in which the object precedes the verb. Percentages here are taken from Ueda 1992, the conceptual framework from Ueda 1993. Certainly the object genitive of negation must be related to the subject genitive of negation (Babby 2001); the genitive of negation, and more broadly, the use of the genitive with quantifying predicates applies to the aspectual argument. Though the subject and object phenomena are related, each “rule” has its own characteristics and requires its own description.

322A Reference Grammar of Russian

Force of negation: The genitive is used with a negated verb only if the force of negation extends over the predicate and its object. The accusative is used if any of the following hold. The specific predicate is conjoined or contrasted with another predicate:

[228]Cjplf/n ajhve cjwbfkbpvf, rjulf yt yfrfpsdfkb, f gjjohzkb bybwbfnbde<acc> .

A form of socialism is being created, when initiative was not punished, but encouraged.

[229]Z bcrfkf b yt yf[jlbkf tuj ≤Jgfdibt kbcnmz≥<acc> . I looked for but did not find his “Fallen Leaves.”

Or the negation is applied to the object, which is contrasted with another object:

[230]Ytvws yt nfrbt ujhjlf<acc> ,then.

It is not such cities that the Germans capture.

The negative particle with the verb applies to some of the entities in the class but not all. In [231], it is specifically the serious decisions that were not changed, leaving open the possibility that the less weighty decisions might be changed:

[231]Cdjb cthmtpyst htitybz<acc> jy ybrjulf yt vtyzk. His serious decisions he never changed.

Negation is weakened in phrases such as x´ynm yt ‘almost’, gjrƒ yt ‘only for so long as’, tldƒ yt ‘almost’, which presuppose that the event might occur (threequarters accusative):

[232]D {f[fkf[ z xenm yt regbk kjlre<acc> , pflevfk d jlbyjxre pf ldjt cenjr cgecnbnmcz gj Rth;tywe lj cfvjq Djkub.

In the village of Khakhaly, I almost bought a boat; I had thought I might take a two-day trip by myself down the Kerzhenets to the Volga itself.

Negative questions, which open up the possibility that the positive state of affairs holds, prefer the accusative ([233]); rhetorical questions are especially likely to use the accusative ([234]):

[233]Ns yt pyftim эne ctvtqre<acc> ? You don’t know that family?

[234]L;tr Gjnhjibntkm! Rnj yt gjvybn эnj cnhfiyjt bvz<acc> ! Jack the Ripper! Who does not remember that horrible name!

Thus, any semantic operation that undermines the force of negation elicits the accusative. At the opposite extreme is emphatic negation with yb. Emphatic negation in effect says to the addressee, even though you might think that the polarity would be positive for at least some element in this class, in fact for

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every one you imagine, the polarity of the predicate is still negative. With yb, the genitive is used almost exclusively (95%). Yb is so strong that it even imposes the genitive on nouns referring to unique animates ([235]).

[235]Dj dct nt pbvybt lyb z yt gjvy/ yb gfgs<gen> , yb K=hs<gen> . Throughout all those winter days I remember neither Papa nor Laura.

Predicate aspectuality-modality: The accusative tends to be used when, in context, the positive version of a given situation is expected.37 In [236], the speaker admits to the absence of a memory that she should have, given that her sister does recall it.

[236]:fkt/, xnj yt gjvy/ egjvzyensq Vfhbyjq gjlyjc<acc> , yfvb ghtgjlytctyysq gfgt.

I regret that I can’t recall the tray which we had presented to Papa that Marina mentioned.

Counterfactual constructions undermine the force of negation by juxtaposing two worlds in which the predicate history has the opposite polarity. The accusative is used regularly in counterfactuals (65% of the time, as opposed to 34% among other constructions).

[237]Jy cnfk ,s pfvtxfntkmysv frnthjv, tckb ,s yt ghtlgjxtk ghjatccb/<acc>

/hbcnf.

He could have become a remarkable actor, had he not preferred the legal profession.

Thus when the alternative, positive state of affairs is in view, the accusative is likely to be used. In contrast, the genitive is used when alternatives are precluded. Participles presuppose the truth of the situation they report, without opening the door to alternatives. Negated, they often use the genitive:

[238]Yt buhfz эnjq hjkb<gen> ,jktt 12 ktn, Tktyf Vbnhjafyjdyf cjukfcbkfcm csuhfnm cgtrnfrkm ≤Djkrb b jdws≥.

Not having played the role for more than 12 years, Elena Mitrofanovna nevertheless agreed to do the play “Wolves and Sheep.”

Aspect exercises at least a statistical influence on the choice of case. Perfective aspect of the verb encourages the use of the accusative (43% accusative with perfectives vs. 29% accusative with imperfectives). With a perfective, the accusative focuses on the failure of the event at the past time when the event might have been expected to occur:

37 Keil 1970.

324 A Reference Grammar of Russian

[239] Njhjgzcm, z yt cyzkf uhbv<acc> b yt gthtjltkfcm.

Because I was in a hurry, I did not remove my makeup and did not change clothes.

The genitive, when it is used with a perfective verb, focuses on the continuing negative existence that results from a failed event.

[240] Njkmrj nen Vfif dcgjvybkf, xnj jyf yt cyzkf gkfof<gen> b ,thtnf<gen> .

It was only then that Masha recalled that she had not removed her coat and beret.

Individuating vs. existential predicates: Although the distinction between existential and individuating predicates is most evident with be and intransitive predicates, there is a comparable distinction among transitives. The extreme cases are the following. Bv†nm is a transitive existential, and it usually interprets its object, often idiomatic abstract nouns like {ghƒdf l†kf jnyji†ybz}, as essential in reference -- in [241], ‘that which would qualify as a token of navy- jacket-ness’:

[241] Z yt bvtk vfnhjcrb<gen> . I did not have a navy jacket.

Negated, bv†nm takes the genitive almost obligatorily, over 95 percent of the time. Predicates that report perception or cognition (d∫ltnm ‘see’, pyƒnm ‘know’) are weakly existential, in that they report the presence of something in a person’s cognitive space. They are more likely to use the genitive than other verbs (85% genitive, as opposed to 60% with other verbs).

At the opposite extreme, predicates like cxbnƒnm rjuj´-kb,j r†v ‘consider someone as someone (something)’, yfpdƒnm/yfpsdƒnm ‘call’, yfpyƒxbnm/yfpyfxƒnm ‘appoint, designate’ are in effect transitive copular predicates. Like other predicatives, they presume the existence and individuation of the entity. If negated, they use the accusative.

[242]Ntgthm vs e;t ,jkmit yt cxbnftv yfib ghjcnjhs<acc> ,tcrjytxysvb, f yfib ,jufncndf ytbcxthgftvsvb.

Now we no longer consider our expanses endless, or our riches inexhaustible.

These verbs do use the genitive in senses other than the predicative: tckb yt cxbnfnm tlbycndtyyjuj j,hfpwf<gen> cntrkf ‘if one does not count the lone example of this glass’.

Argument individuation: Arguments that are individuated in reference are more likely to occur in the accusative, while arguments with essential reference prefer the genitive. At this point it will be useful to refer to a small sample of fifty-one examples of the context yt gj´vy/ ‘I don’t recall’ in one memoir

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Table 5.10 Genitive of negation/yt gjvy/

	acc	gen	% gen
animate (proper), without yb	3	2	40
singular concrete	5	12	71
singular abstract	0	7	100
plural	0	11	100
yb	0	11	100
total	8	43	84

(Table 5.10). Since the verb -- a transitive existential -- is held constant, case depends primarily on the referential properties of the argument.38

Proper nouns and common nouns referring to unique animate beings are likely to use the accusative (around 90%, as opposed to 30% for common inanimate). In the sample corpus, three of five tokens of animate objects (without yb) are accusative:

[243]D эnb lyb z cjdctv yt gjvy/ Fylh/ie<acc> .

I have no memory of Andriusha at all during those days.

The two tokens with genitive have essential reference -- in [244], ‘no memory of a person fitting the description of a teacher’.

[244]Z exbkfcm ljvf. Gj irjkmysv ghtlvtnfv yt gjvy/ exbntkmybws<gen> .

I studied at home. For academic subjects I don’t remember having any teacher.

At the opposite extreme, abstract nouns and event nouns are very likely to use the genitive, as are plural nouns (in this sample, exclusively):

[245]B ybrnj, rhjvt vtyz, tt gjke,kbpytwf, yt gjvybn nt[ ktn<gen> tt ;bpyb. No one, except me, her near twin, remembers those years of her life.

The one context of variation in this sample (Table 5.10) is singular concrete inanimate common nouns. The genitive is used when there is no memory of singular entities that have essential reference -- in [246], there is no memory of whatever the color of the binding was:

[246]Wdtnf<gen> vjtq j,kj;rb yt gjvy/, ,skj bplfyj b[ hfpys[ wdtnjd -- vfkbyjds[, cbyb[, ptktys[.

The color of the binding I don’t remember, it was published in various colors -- raspberry, blue, green.

38 A. Tsvetaeva, Vospominaniia (Moscow, 1971).