364A Reference Grammar of Russian

[351]E;t yf cktle/obq ltym dsitk yjdsq pfrjy: j,dbyztvs[ d nthhjhbpvt celbnm ,scnhj, cktlcndbt pfrfyxbdfnm pf ltcznm lytq.

On the following day there appeared a new law: those accused of terrorism were to be judged quickly, the process to be finished within ten days.

[352]Jlyf uhfacrfz kj;rf lj cb[ gjh e vtyz [hfybncz. Tckb dpznm tt d hjn, xedcndetncz ghjnbdysq drec vtlb.

I still have one of those aristocratic spoons. If one were to put it into one’s mouth, one senses the unpleasant taste of copper.

[353]Lf b ult dpznm vfnthbfks b ltymub?

And where can one get the materials and the money?

The construction is stylistically neutral and extremely frequent in conditions and questions ([352--53]). A search for the phrase Rfr gjgfcnm ‘How can one reach’ produced an impressive 19,400 hits on the web (<10.X.02>).

5.10.5 The free infinitive construction (with negative existential pronouns)

As a specialized development, infinitives can be used with interrogativeindefinite pronouns to establish the existence of a possible entity that would fit in the event ([354]):72

[354]Pfobofnm ,skj jn xtuj.

There was indeed something from which to defend them.

[355]E; tve-nj ,skj j xtv pflevfnmcz.

Now he really had what [something] to think about.

The lack of possible existence of an entity is expressed using a special series of negated indefinite-interrogative pronouns of the type y†ult ‘(there is) nowhere’, y† c rtv ‘(there is) no one with whom’, etc.

[356]Ntgthm d wthrdb (,skj) cke;bnm ytrjve. Now to hold services there is (was) no one.

Only the pronoun carries negation. The infinitive and be (when it is used) are not negated.

As in other instances of the free infinitive, the implicit subject of the infinitive is often universal in reference and omitted ([354]), but can in principle be expressed as a dative ([355], [356]). As in other instances of the free construction, the time reference is likely to be universal and present, but other tenses can be formed by using the appropriate past or future form of be. The present tense of the positive construction with indefinite-interrogative pronoun uses †cnm, but the negative existential construction has no trace of be.

72 Mrƒzek 1971, Garde 1976, Rappaport 1983, Babby 2000.

Predicates and arguments 365

[357],skj

Dfv tcnm		xnj nthznm.
,eltn
				was
For you there is					what [something] to lose.
					,skj
		will be
[358]
Vyt ghjcnj ytult ---						ndjhbnm.
				,eltn
			was
There simply is					no place for me to work creatively.
	will be

5.10.6 The dative-with-infinitive construction (overt modal)

From the historical source of the free dative-with-infinitive construction with no overt matrix predicate has developed the use of the infinitive with certain nonverbal predicates: yƒlj ‘necessary’, vj´;yj ‘possible’, djpvj´;yj ‘possible’, ytkmpz´ ‘impermissible, impossible’. As in the free infinitive construction, the implicit subject can be expressed in the dative, by virtue of being the goal of modality of the main predicate.

[359]Tve yflj gjlrjhvbnmcz.

He needs to build himself up a bit.

If no dative argument is overt, the modality is understood to apply to any or all people; in [360] anyone could write such a story:

[360]Yf эnjn c/;tn vj;yj ,skj ,s yfgbcfnm gjnhzcf/obq hfccrfp. On that theme it would be possible to write a stunning story.

The infinitive is tightly bound with these non-verbal predicates; thus negation of the main predicate (ytkmpz´ ‘not permissible, impossible’) used to elicit the genitive in a transitive infinitive, though that usage has now faded except with emphatic negative pronouns:

[361]Yfv ytkmpz ,skj ljdthznm ybrfrb[ j,otcndtyys[ hf,jn<gen> . It was not possible to entrust any social projects to us.

This construction can be formed with the neuter singular predicative (short) form of a variety of adjectives that comment on the modality of the event in a weaker form, by evaluating its desirability for someone ([jhjij´ ‘it’s good for one to’) or its difficulty (nhelyj´ ‘it’s difficult for one to’), and so on. A variation

366A Reference Grammar of Russian

on this construction is used with a set of “occasional” verbs, that is, with verbs that talk about the occurrence or success of an event against the expectation that the event might not occur: elƒcnmcz ‘succeed in’, gjdtpn∫ ‘be fortunate to’, ghbqn∫cm ‘have occasion to’.

With yƒlj ‘necessary’ and ytkmpz´ ‘not permissible’, the attached clause can be finite (subjunctive with xnj,s) if what must be is a whole event not under the control of the argument in the main clause:

[362]Ytkmpz, xnj,s jyb cnfyjdbkbcm ;thndfvb.

It is impermissible that they should become victims.

[363]J,zpfntkmyj yflj, xnj,s vepsrf ,skf.

It’s absolutely necessary that there should be music.

Vj´;yj ‘possible’ prefers infinitives.

5.10.7 Infinitives with modal hosts (nominative subject)

The most versatile modal in Russian is the verb (c)vj´xm ‘may, might, can’. Russian uses an old adjective lj´k;ty ‘obligated’ (ljk;yƒ, ljk;yj´, ljk;ys´ ) with an infinitive to express obligation. These modals differ from the impersonal modals exactly by making the responsibility personal, whereas the impersonal modals present obligation as universal, even if in a particular case it is directed to the dative domain (§6.2.8).

5.10.8 Infinitives with hosts of intentional modality (nominative subject)

A variety of verbs talk about an individual who tries to create a state of the world that does not exist. The host verbs characterize various attitudes with respect to changing the world: volition ([jn†nm ‘want’, hti∫nm ‘decide to’), attempt (cnfhƒnmcz ‘try’, gsnƒnmcz ‘make an attempt’, cnhtv∫nmcz ‘strive’), success (gjcxfcnk∫dbnmcz ‘have the good fortune’, e[bnh∫nmcz ‘to be clever enough’), or habit (k/,∫nm ‘love’, ghtlgjxbnƒnm ‘prefer’).

[364]Z htibk cltkfnm ghtccrjyathtywb/. I decided to hold a press conference.

The individual who formulates the desire is the individual who will accomplish the event.

The infinitive is moderately cohesive with the main predicate. Negating the main verb once used to evoke the genitive in the object of the infinitive, but no longer. As a rule, intending or attempting to create a world is a perfective event ([364], cl†kfnm<pf>). Habits, however, are imperfective (§6.5.9).

If the individual responsible for creating the new world is not the same as the individual who wills the creation, the conjunction xnj,s is used.

Predicates and arguments 367

[365]Hjlbntkb yt [jntkb, xnj,s jy etp;fk.

His parents did not want that he should leave.

Russian has no construction similar to the English “raising” construction: corresponding to His parents did not want him to leave, there is no Hjlbntkb yt [jntkb tuj et[fnm.

5.10.9 Infinitives with aspectual hosts (nominative subject)

Infinitives are used with a small set of predicates that describe transitions in the status of an activity -- beginnings (yfxƒnm/yfxbyƒnm ‘begin’, cnƒnm/cnfyjd∫nmcz ‘get involved in’), continuations (ghjljk;∫nm/ghjljk;ƒnm ‘continue’), endings (rj´yxbnm/rjyxƒnm ‘end’, gthtcnƒnm/gthtcnfdƒnm ‘stop’). The infinitives are always imperfective. Historically, the future imperfective with ,éle, etc., is of the same type.

An unusual construction that may be related is the use of an imperfective infinitive with a nominative subject but without any overt host predicate. The construction is used in stylized imitations of folk style, such as the doggerel about the bee in [366]:

[366] <sk yf gfctrt e ltlf,	Once at grandpa’s beehive
Nfv edbltk z pkjdhtle	I saw an evildoer
Z ,t;fnm -- jyf pf vyjq	I take to running -- she, after me
B gjlheu pjdtn c cj,jq	Calling her friends to come

The construction suggests an action closely related to other narrative events that is attempted but incomplete (as is the escape in [366]). Because the infinitive is imperfective, it is likely that the construction developed historically from an aspectual construction by eliding the host predicate (whether cnƒnm, ,éle, lfdƒq, or another host can no longer be determined), but by now it is a distinct, albeit stylistically and pragmatically quite idiosyncratic, construction.

5.10.10 Infinitives with hosts of imposed modality (accusative or dative object)

Another construction involving infinitives is that in which the subject of the host predicate transfers modality (obligation, possibility) to another individual, who is put under the obligation, or given the opportunity, to carry out the event. There are two types. The event can be imposed on or permitted of an individual expressed as the dative: lƒnm/lfdƒnm ‘give, let’, ghbrfpƒnm/ghbrƒpsdfnm ‘give an order’, dtk†nm ‘order’, gjpdj´kbnm/gjpdjkz´nm ‘allow’, ghtlkj;∫nm/ghtlkfuƒnm

‘offer’:

[367]ghbrfpfkb

Vyt<dat> lfkb

dstp;fnm dj Dkflbvbh d ne ;t yjxm.

gjpdjkbkb

368 A Reference Grammar of Russian

Table 5.19 Types of infinitive constructions

	impersonal				transferred
	model		personal	volitive	modality	transferred
	yflj ‘be		modal	[jntnm	ghbrfpfnm	modality
	necessary’		vjxm ‘be able’	‘want’	‘order’	gjghjcbnm ‘ask’
implicit subject	dat domain		nom subject	nom subject	dat goal	acc object
of infinitive	[goal]
= argument
of main
predicate
modality	necessity		obligation/	subject	subject imposes	subject imposes
	directed to		possibility as	intends to	obligation	obligation
	goal		function of	create world	(possibility) of	(possibility) of
			subject		creating	creating
					world	world
cohesion of	close		close	intermediate	loose	loose
infinitive
with main
predicate
finite variants	(xnj,s)		---	xnj,s	xnj,s	xnj,s
	ordered
They let		me to leave that very night for Vladimir.
	allowed

Or the individual can be affected by the imposition of obligation (possibility, invitation), and the argument is expressed in the accusative: pfcnƒdbnm/pfcnfdkz´nm

‘force, make’, (gj)ghjc∫nm ‘ask’, e,tl∫nm/e,t;lƒnm ‘persuade’, gj,el∫nm/gj,e;lƒnm ‘incite’, ghbukfc∫nm/ghbukfiƒnm ‘invite’.

[368]ghjcbkf

Jyf pfcnfdkzkf vtyz<acc> lj,snm ryb;re crfpjr.

gj,e;lfkf

asked

She tried to force me to get a book of tales.

encouraged

In such constructions, the infinitive is loosely attached to the main predicate. Since there are in effect two subjects, reflexives can in principle refer either to the implicit subject of the infinitive (in reference, the same as the dative goal or the accusative object) or to the matrix subject (§4.7.9). The imposed event is likely to be viewed as a potentially complete event, not merely an activity, and