- •Contents
- •1 Russian
- •1.1 The Russian language
- •1.1.1 Russian then and now
- •1.1.2 Levels of language
- •1.2 Describing Russian grammar
- •1.2.1 Conventions of notation
- •1.2.2 Abbreviations
- •1.2.3 Dictionaries and grammars
- •1.2.4 Statistics and corpora
- •1.2.5 Strategies of describing Russian grammar
- •1.2.6 Two fundamental concepts of (Russian) grammar
- •1.3 Writing Russian
- •1.3.1 The Russian Cyrillic alphabet
- •1.3.2 A brief history of the Cyrillic alphabet
- •1.3.3 Etymology of letters
- •1.3.4 How the Cyrillic alphabet works (basics)
- •1.3.5 How the Cyrillic alphabet works (refinements)
- •1.3.6 How the Cyrillic alphabet works (lexical idiosyncrasies)
- •1.3.7 Transliteration
- •2 Sounds
- •2.1 Sounds
- •2.2 Vowels
- •2.2.1 Stressed vowels
- •2.2.3 Vowel duration
- •2.2.4 Unstressed vowels
- •2.2.5 Unpaired consonants [ˇs ˇz c] and unstressed vocalism
- •2.2.6 Post-tonic soft vocalism
- •2.2.7 Unstressed vowels in sequence
- •2.2.8 Unstressed vowels in borrowings
- •2.3 Consonants
- •2.3.1 Classification of consonants
- •2.3.2 Palatalization of consonants
- •2.3.3 The distribution of palatalized consonants
- •2.3.4 Palatalization assimilation
- •2.3.5 The glide [j]
- •2.3.6 Affricates
- •2.3.7 Soft palatal fricatives
- •2.3.8 Geminate consonants
- •2.3.9 Voicing of consonants
- •2.4 Phonological variation
- •2.4.1 General
- •2.4.2 Phonological variation: idiomaticity
- •2.4.3 Phonological variation: systemic factors
- •2.4.4 Phonological variation: phonostylistics and Old Muscovite pronunciation
- •2.5 Morpholexical alternations
- •2.5.1 Preliminaries
- •2.5.2 Consonant grades
- •2.5.3 Types of softness
- •2.5.4 Vowel grades
- •2.5.5 Morphophonemic {o}
- •3 Inflectional morphology
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.2 Conjugation of verbs
- •3.2.1 Verbal categories
- •3.2.2 Conjugation classes
- •3.2.3 Stress patterns
- •3.2.4 Conjugation classes: I-Conjugation
- •3.2.5 Conjugation classes: suffixed E-Conjugation
- •3.2.6 Conjugation classes: quasisuffixed E-Conjugation
- •3.2.7 Stress in verbs: retrospective
- •3.2.8 Irregularities in conjugation
- •3.2.9 Secondary imperfectivization
- •3.3 Declension of pronouns
- •3.3.1 Personal pronouns
- •3.3.2 Third-person pronouns
- •3.3.3 Determiners (demonstrative, possessive, adjectival pronouns)
- •3.4 Quantifiers
- •3.5 Adjectives
- •3.5.1 Adjectives
- •3.5.2 Predicative (‘‘short”) adjectives
- •3.5.3 Mixed adjectives and surnames
- •3.5.4 Comparatives and superlatives
- •3.6 Declension of nouns
- •3.6.1 Categories and declension classes of nouns
- •3.6.2 Hard, soft, and unpaired declensions
- •3.6.3 Accentual patterns
- •3.6.8 Declension and gender of gradation
- •3.6.9 Accentual paradigms
- •3.7 Complications in declension
- •3.7.1 Indeclinable common nouns
- •3.7.2 Acronyms
- •3.7.3 Compounds
- •3.7.4 Appositives
- •3.7.5 Names
- •4 Arguments
- •4.1 Argument phrases
- •4.1.1 Basics
- •4.1.2 Reference of arguments
- •4.1.3 Morphological categories of nouns: gender
- •4.1.4 Gender: unpaired ‘‘masculine” nouns
- •4.1.5 Gender: common gender
- •4.1.6 Morphological categories of nouns: animacy
- •4.1.7 Morphological categories of nouns: number
- •4.1.8 Number: pluralia tantum, singularia tantum
- •4.1.9 Number: figurative uses of number
- •4.1.10 Morphological categories of nouns: case
- •4.2 Prepositions
- •4.2.1 Preliminaries
- •4.2.2 Ligature {o}
- •4.2.3 Case government
- •4.3 Quantifiers
- •4.3.1 Preliminaries
- •4.3.2 General numerals
- •4.3.3 Paucal numerals
- •4.3.5 Preposed quantified noun
- •4.3.6 Complex numerals
- •4.3.7 Fractions
- •4.3.8 Collectives
- •4.3.9 Approximates
- •4.3.10 Numerative (counting) forms of selected nouns
- •4.3.12 Quantifier (numeral) cline
- •4.4 Internal arguments and modifiers
- •4.4.1 General
- •4.4.2 Possessors
- •4.4.3 Possessive adjectives of unique nouns
- •4.4.4 Agreement of adjectives and participles
- •4.4.5 Relative clauses
- •4.4.6 Participles
- •4.4.7 Comparatives
- •4.4.8 Event nouns: introduction
- •4.4.9 Semantics of event nouns
- •4.4.10 Arguments of event nouns
- •4.5 Reference in text: nouns, pronouns, and ellipsis
- •4.5.1 Basics
- •4.5.2 Common nouns in text
- •4.5.3 Third-person pronouns
- •4.5.4 Ellipsis (‘‘zero” pronouns)
- •4.5.5 Second-person pronouns and address
- •4.5.6 Names
- •4.6 Demonstrative pronouns
- •4.7 Reflexive pronouns
- •4.7.1 Basics
- •4.7.2 Autonomous arguments
- •4.7.3 Non-immediate sites
- •4.7.4 Special predicate--argument relations: existential, quantifying, modal, experiential predicates
- •4.7.5 Unattached reflexives
- •4.7.6 Special predicate--argument relations: direct objects
- •4.7.7 Special predicate--argument relations: passives
- •4.7.8 Autonomous domains: event argument phrases
- •4.7.9 Autonomous domains: non-finite verbs
- •4.7.12 Retrospective on reflexives
- •4.8 Quantifying pronouns and adjectives
- •4.8.1 Preliminaries: interrogatives as indefinite pronouns
- •4.8.7 Summary
- •4.8.9 Universal adjectives
- •5 Predicates and arguments
- •5.1 Predicates and arguments
- •5.1.1 Predicates and arguments, in general
- •5.1.2 Predicate aspectuality and modality
- •5.1.3 Aspectuality and modality in context
- •5.1.4 Predicate information structure
- •5.1.5 Information structure in context
- •5.1.6 The concept of subject and the concept of object
- •5.1.7 Typology of predicates
- •5.2 Predicative adjectives and nouns
- •5.2.1 General
- •5.2.2 Modal co-predicates
- •5.2.3 Aspectual co-predicates
- •5.2.4 Aspectual and modal copular predicatives
- •5.2.5 Copular constructions: instrumental
- •5.2.6 Copular adjectives: predicative (short) form vs. nominative (long) form
- •5.2.9 Predicatives in non-finite clauses
- •5.2.10 Summary: case usage in predicatives
- •5.3 Quantifying predicates and genitive subjects
- •5.3.1 Basics
- •5.3.2 Clausal quantifiers and subject quantifying genitive
- •5.3.3 Subject quantifying genitive without quantifiers
- •5.3.4 Existential predication and the subject genitive of negation: basic paradigm
- •5.3.5 Existential predication and the subject genitive of negation: predicates
- •5.3.6 Existential predication and the subject genitive of negation: reference
- •5.3.8 Existential predication and the subject genitive of negation: predicates and reference
- •5.3.9 Existential predication and the subject genitive of negation: context
- •5.3.10 Existential predication and the subject genitive of negation: summary
- •5.4 Quantified (genitive) objects
- •5.4.1 Basics
- •5.4.2 Governed genitive
- •5.4.3 Partitive and metric genitive
- •5.4.4 Object genitive of negation
- •5.4.5 Genitive objects: summary
- •5.5 Secondary genitives and secondary locatives
- •5.5.1 Basics
- •5.5.2 Secondary genitive
- •5.5.3 Secondary locative
- •5.6 Instrumental case
- •5.6.1 Basics
- •5.6.2 Modal instrumentals
- •5.6.3 Aspectual instrumentals
- •5.6.4 Agentive instrumentals
- •5.6.5 Summary
- •5.7 Case: context and variants
- •5.7.1 Jakobson’s case system: general
- •5.7.2 Jakobson’s case system: the analysis
- •5.7.3 Syncretism
- •5.7.4 Secondary genitive and secondary locative as cases?
- •5.8 Voice: reflexive verbs, passive participles
- •5.8.1 Basics
- •5.8.2 Functional equivalents of passive
- •5.8.3 Reflexive verbs
- •5.8.4 Present passive participles
- •5.8.5 Past passive participles
- •5.8.6 Passives and near-passives
- •5.9 Agreement
- •5.9.1 Basics
- •5.9.2 Agreement with implicit arguments, complications
- •5.9.3 Agreement with overt arguments: special contexts
- •5.9.4 Agreement with conjoined nouns
- •5.9.5 Agreement with comitative phrases
- •5.9.6 Agreement with quantifier phrases
- •5.10 Subordinate clauses and infinitives
- •5.10.1 Basics
- •5.10.2 Finite clauses
- •5.10.4 The free infinitive construction (without overt modal)
- •5.10.5 The free infinitive construction (with negative existential pronouns)
- •5.10.6 The dative-with-infinitive construction (overt modal)
- •5.10.7 Infinitives with modal hosts (nominative subject)
- •5.10.8 Infinitives with hosts of intentional modality (nominative subject)
- •5.10.9 Infinitives with aspectual hosts (nominative subject)
- •5.10.10 Infinitives with hosts of imposed modality (accusative or dative object)
- •5.10.11 Final constructions
- •5.10.12 Summary of infinitive constructions
- •6 Mood, tense, and aspect
- •6.1 States and change, times, alternatives
- •6.2 Mood
- •6.2.1 Modality in general
- •6.2.2 Mands and the imperative
- •6.2.3 Conditional constructions
- •6.2.4 Dependent irrealis mood: possibility, volitive, optative
- •6.2.5 Dependent irrealis mood: epistemology
- •6.2.6 Dependent irrealis mood: reference
- •6.2.7 Independent irrealis moods
- •6.2.8 Syntax and semantics of modal predicates
- •6.3 Tense
- •6.3.1 Predicates and times, in general
- •6.3.2 Tense in finite adjectival and adverbial clauses
- •6.3.3 Tense in argument clauses
- •6.3.4 Shifts of perspective in tense: historical present
- •6.3.5 Shifts of perspective in tense: resultative
- •6.3.6 Tense in participles
- •6.3.7 Aspectual-temporal-modal particles
- •6.4 Aspect and lexicon
- •6.4.1 Aspect made simple
- •6.4.2 Tests for aspect membership
- •6.4.3 Aspect and morphology: the core strategy
- •6.4.4 Aspect and morphology: other strategies and groups
- •6.4.5 Aspect pairs
- •6.4.6 Intrinsic lexical aspect
- •6.4.7 Verbs of motion
- •6.5 Aspect and context
- •6.5.1 Preliminaries
- •6.5.2 Past ‘‘aoristic” narrative: perfective
- •6.5.3 Retrospective (‘‘perfect”) contexts: perfective and imperfective
- •6.5.4 The essentialist context: imperfective
- •6.5.5 Progressive context: imperfective
- •6.5.6 Durative context: imperfective
- •6.5.7 Iterative context: imperfective
- •6.5.8 The future context: perfective and imperfective
- •6.5.9 Exemplary potential context: perfective
- •6.5.10 Infinitive contexts: perfective and imperfective
- •6.5.11 Retrospective on aspect
- •6.6 Temporal adverbs
- •6.6.1 Temporal adverbs
- •6.6.2 Measured intervals
- •6.6.3 Time units
- •6.6.4 Time units: variations on the basic patterns
- •6.6.14 Frequency
- •6.6.15 Some lexical adverbs
- •6.6.16 Conjunctions
- •6.6.17 Summary
- •7 The presentation of information
- •7.1 Basics
- •7.2 Intonation
- •7.2.1 Basics
- •7.2.2 Intonation contours
- •7.3 Word order
- •7.3.1 General
- •7.3.6 Word order without subjects
- •7.3.7 Summary of word-order patterns of predicates and arguments
- •7.3.8 Emphatic stress and word order
- •7.3.9 Word order within argument phrases
- •7.3.10 Word order in speech
- •7.4 Negation
- •7.4.1 Preliminaries
- •7.4.2 Distribution and scope of negation
- •7.4.3 Negation and other phenomena
- •7.5 Questions
- •7.5.1 Preliminaries
- •7.5.2 Content questions
- •7.5.3 Polarity questions and answers
- •7.6 Lexical information operators
- •7.6.1 Conjunctions
- •7.6.2 Contrastive conjunctions
- •Bibliography
- •Index
344 A Reference Grammar of Russian
as conventional phrases. This picture of the dynamic development is lost if one is forced to answer a binary question.
5.8 Voice: reflexive verbs, passive participles
5.8.1 Basics
Most verbs take the same cases in their arguments in all contexts in which they occur. In the few instances in which one verb allows arguments in different cases -- accusative and genitive for objects of negated verbs, accusative or instrumental (idshyénm {rƒvtym<acc> rƒvytv<ins>} ‘toss a stone engage in stone-tossing’) -- the verb has the same form; only the case of the argument differs.52 There are, however, two productive patterns for modifying valence in which the verb changes shape: reflexive verbs and passive participles of verbs.53
5.8.2 Functional equivalents of passive
The passive constructions of Western European languages do several things at once. The agent, which in the active construction would be the (nominative) subject, is downgraded to an oblique case, if it is mentioned at all; more commonly, it is not mentioned. The patient, which in the active construction would be the (accusative) object, is given more prominence in its new role as the (nominative) subject. Together, these two criteria amount to a re-weighting of the two arguments of a transitive predicate. In addition, a passive construction often has different aspectual connotations from the active; in particular, a participial passive reports a resulting state rather than an event.
Something of the effect of a European (specifically English) passive is achieved by other means in Russian. To avoid assigning explicit responsibility for an event, Russian uses the third-person plural form of the verb, whether transitive or intransitive:
[285]Z tuj [jhjij gjvybk, tuj c[dfnbkb<pl> ghzvj yf ,fpfht.
I remember him well, [they] seized him right there at the bazaar.
[286]Vfif jnrfpsdfkfcm, tq uhjpbkb<pl> fhtcnjv.
Masha refused, [they] were threatening her with arrest.
The construction fails to specify the identity of the individuals responsible for the event, even if something more specific could be said. In [287], the woman speaks of being observed in general, though her grounds are that she knows that one individual is observing:
52 |
Apresian 1974. For a broad conceptualization of valence, see Kholodovich 1970, |
◦ |
|
Ruˇziˇcka 1986. |
53The exposition here makes use of Hudin’s (1990) analysis of the functions of the three passive (or passive-like) constructions (and examples [287], [298], [307]).
Predicates and arguments 345
[287]J,thyekfcm. Gthtl ytq cnjzk ve;xbyf, dscjrbq, [eljq.
--Jy [=jcnhjd] lfdyj jnrhsn, jndtnbkf jyf b cenekzcm, yterk/;t, pyfz, xnj pf ytq yf,k/lf/n<3pl> , djikf d djle.
She turned. In front of her stood a man, tall and thin.
--It’s been discovered for a long time, she answered, and stooping, uncomfortably, aware that she was being watched, got in the water.
The construction with unspecified third plural, then, establishes the existence of individual(s) responsible for an event, but refuses to name them. In this construction the object is often placed before the verb (§7.3.6), where it is linked to the prior discourse ([285]). This has the effect of foregrounding the object, another typical function of the passive.
5.8.3 Reflexive verbs
Many verbs include a morpheme descended from the historical enclitic reflexive pronoun, -cz in its fuller form (after consonants, but after both consonants and vowels in active participles), -cm in reduced form (used after vowels, except in active participles). There is a number of recognizably distinct, albeit related, types of reflexive verbs.54
Reflexivum tantum: Some verbs are only reflexive, ,jz´nmcz ‘fear’, ckéifnmcz ‘listen to’ (though related to other verbs from the same root), ,jhj´nmcz ‘fight, to struggle’, cvtz´nmcz ‘laugh’, yfl†zncz ‘hope’. The verbs tend to be semi-transitive; there is often another argument that is involved in the activity, similar to a direct object, but less directly affected. Historically the argument could not occur in the accusative. In recent years, these verbs that formerly governed the genitive (,jz´nmcz, ckéifnmcz) have begun to allow the accusative ([218]).
“True” reflexives: Certain verbs seem to be literally reflexive, in that the subject acts on the self. Such verbs are now limited to conventionalized, domestic activities involving contact with the self’s inalienable body: vs´ nmcz ‘wash (oneself)’, ,h∫nmcz ‘shave (oneself)’. As a rule, except for this small set of verbs, an action performed on the self is expressed by an argument pronoun ct,z´. Where both reflexive verbs and reflexive objects with ct,z´ exist, they differ in meaning. Vs´ nmcz is an intransitive activity, not directed at an object, whereas vs´ nm ct,z´ is an activity directed at an entity, which could be any thing (such as a horse), but in context happens to be the same entity as the subject:
[288]Z ,sk d ,fyt. Z vsk ct,z otnrfvb, rfr rjyz.
I was in the bathhouse. I scrubbed myself with brushes, like a horse.
54 For the basic typology, see Ianko-Trinitskaia 1962, Gerritsen 1990.
346 A Reference Grammar of Russian
Certain common reflexive verbs have acquired the sense of engaging in an activity intensively with the self and all parts involved: ,hj´cbnmcz ‘throw oneself, to lurch’; ,∫nmcz ‘beat against (for example, snow against a window)’, not the same as ,bnm ct,z d uhelm ‘beat oneself on the breast’.
Reciprocal reflexives: A number of actions that portray individuals (or groups) mutually acting one on the other are expressed as reflexive verbs: lhƒnmcz ‘engage in fighting each other’, vbh∫nmcz ‘reconcile’.
Habitual reflexives: With a very small number of verbs, the reflexive implies a predisposition to an activity, the classic collocations being cj,frf recftncz ‘the dog bites’, rjhjdf ,jlftncz ‘the cow butts’, rhfgbdf ;;tncz ‘the nettle stings’.
Phenomenological reflexives: Some intransitive verbs report a manifestation of color and its perception:
[289]F dyenhb Rhtvkz gjlybvfkcz dscjrbq ,tksq cnjk, rjkjrjkmyb, hzljv
,tktkb ldf gznbukfds[ cj,jhf.
Inside the Kremlin there raised up a tall white bell tower, alongside showed white two cathedrals with five domes.
The corresponding reflexive attenuates the manifestation of color and its perception. It is partial, or is visible through obstacles, or is unstable and runs the risk of disappearing:55
[290]Djpybwf gjrfpfk yfv ryenjv: -- F djy b Rbhbkkjd ,tkttncz.
Our driver pointed with his knout: -- Over there Kirillov is just beginning to show white.
To this type belong: ptkty†nm(cz) ‘become (show) green’, ntvy†nm(cz) ‘become (show) dark’, cby†nm(cz) ‘become (show) blue’, rhfcy†nm(cz) ‘become (show) red’. In practice the reflexive forms are not frequent.56
Modal impersonal reflexives: Some intransitives form a reflexive that treats its argument as a domain to which some attitude or inclination to perform an activity is ascribed, often an inclination that is negative or inhibited: (vyt) yt cgbncz ‘it isn’t sleepy to me, I don’t feel sleepy’, yt hf,jnftncz ‘doesn’t feel like working’, (yt) [jxtncz ‘it isn’t appealing to’.57
55Ianko-Trinitskaia 1962:227, Gerritsen 1990:40--46.
56On the web (<01.XI.02>), non-reflexive past-tense forms of ,tk†nm outnumbered the reflexive forms by a ratio of 96 to 1, those of rhfcy†nm by a ratio of 153 to 1.
57Mrƒzek 1971.
Predicates and arguments 347
[291]Gfyjd cjdctv lhtvktn. Pfnj Gjgjde yt cblbncz yf vtcnt. Panov is very drowsy. In contrast, Popov can’t sit still.
This type of reflexive verb is formed mostly from intransitives, and so the resulting valence is impersonal. But some verbs occur with a clause that has the role of an argument: [jxtnmcz dthbnm ‘one would like to believe’; levftncz, xnj ‘one is inclined to think that’; yt dthbncz, xnj ytn nt,z cj vyjq ‘I don’t want to believe that you’re not here with me’.58 {j´xtncz can even take a nominal argument: ybxtuj tve e;t yt [jxtncz ‘he no longer wants anything’; vyt nj;t [jxtncz cxfcnmz ‘I also would like happiness’.
Quantifying reflexives: In combination with certain prefixes, the reflexive affix focuses on the quantity of the subject’s participation. The productive formations in yf- . . . -cz -- such as yfujdjh∫nmcz ‘speak much, to one’s heart’s content’, yf†cnmcz (lj´csnf) ‘eat one’s fill’, yfjnls[ƒnmcz ‘rest fully’ -- assert that the quantity of the subject’s participation reaches some limit of satisfaction or sufficiency:
[292]Cnjkmrj jy gskb yfukjnfkcz yjxm/!
How much dust he swallowed during the night!
The formation in hfp- . . . -cz means intense involvement by the subject exceeding a norm ([293]), lj- . . . -cz activity that leads up to a boundary signaling a change in the world ([294]):
[293]Ghb xe;jv xtkjdtrt jyf hfpsuhfkfcm, hfpdtctkbkfcm, hfpujdjhbkfcm.
In the presence of a stranger, she became thoroughly playful, merry, talkative.
[294]Hjlvfy jgznm ljbuhfkcz, edjkty bp rke,f ≤Lfkkfc Vfdthbrc≥.
Rodman again has fooled around [to that point that he has been] released from the Dallas Mavericks.
Intransitivized reflexives: The most productive function of the reflexive affix is to make intransitive verbs from transitive verbs. A transitive, by definition, has a subject (an argument responsible for change or imbalance) distinct from an object (an aspectual argument whose change or imbalance is reported). Detransitivized reflexive verbs formed from transitives lack a distinction of responsible and aspectual arguments. They report a change that befalls the sole participant: ghtrhfn∫nmcz ‘cease’, jndk†xmcz ‘be distracted’, yfxƒnmcz ‘begin’, cjdvtcn∫nmcz
‘coexist, overlap’, bpvty∫nmcz ‘change’, juhfy∫xbnmcz ‘be restricted’, ekéxibnmcz ‘get better’, cj[hfy∫nmcz ‘be preserved’. The interpretation of individual verbs varies depending on whether the sole argument is inanimate, in which case the event is spontaneous ([295]), or animate, in which case the event can be
58 Gerritsen 1990:153--60.
348A Reference Grammar of Russian
understood as instigated by the subject ([296]:
[295]Yfcnegbn vbhjdfz htdjk/wbz, b dct itltdhs dyjdm r yfv dthyencz. Once the world revolution arrives, all the masterpieces will return to us.
[296]D rjywt fduecnf vs dthyekbcm d Vjcrde.
At the end of August we returned to Moscow.
Reflexive passives: When, for a given verb, the roles of modal and aspectual argument cannot be understood as merged and the change is induced externally, the reflexive intransitive verb might be called “passive.” The passive sense of imperfective reflexive verbs presents an activity as a generic situation that is the property of the aspectual argument:
[297]E vyjub[ bpdtcnys[ vyt gjkbnpfrk/xtyys[ vyjubt vtczws gjlhzl rjyabcrjdsdfkbcm dct gbcmvf.
Among many of the political prisoners I knew, all letters used to be confiscated for many months at a time.
In [297], the reflexive passive presents a static fact as a property of the letters -- they persist in the state of inaccessibility; using the third plural (rjyabcrjdsdfkb) here would focus on the active participation of the unnamed agents. Exceptionally, the responsible party is actually expressed in the instrumental case ([298]):
[298]Эnb cbufhs rehbkbcm vjbv lzltq<ins> dc/ ;bpym.
These cigars used to be [= were of the type that were] smoked by my uncle all his life.
The passive use is related to the detransitivizing function of reflexive predicates mentioned above, but differs in certain respects. The detransitivized reflexives presume that change can occur spontaneously without an external agent, and they are formed from both aspects: cjdvtcn∫nmcz/cjdvtoƒnmcz ‘be compatible with’, bpvty∫nmcz/bpvtyz´nmcz ‘change’, juhfy∫xbnmcz/juhfy∫xbdfnmcz
‘be limited’. The passive sense presumes that change would not occur without an external agent (in [299], the room needs an agent to instigate ventilation), and it is only formed from imperfectives.
[299]Tckb d gjvtotybb vyjuj k/ltq b jyj lkbntkmyj yt ghjdtnhbdftncz, cjlth;fybt d djple[t eufhyjuj ufpf edtkbxbdftncz.
If there are many people in a dwelling, and it fails to be aired out for a long time, the content of carbon dioxide in the air increases.
Since Fortunatov (1899), there has been an impulse to see a unity in the overall group of reflexive verbs: they have reduced valence.59 While there is
59 For a notational account, see Babby 1975[b]; for a semantic account, see Schenker 1986.