130A Reference Grammar of Russian

dfv jnkbxysq, yfbrhfcbdtqibq, f cfvjt ukfdyjt -- bynthfrnbdysq cfqn! ‘I am prepared to create for you an outstanding, exceptionally beautiful, and, most importantly, interactive site for a modest price!’ Even for such adjectives, it is more common to use the adverb yfb,j´ktt with the adjective: yfb,jktt df;yst djghjcs ‘the very most important questions’, yfb,jktt dscjrfz yfcsotyyjcnm

‘the very highest concentration’.

3.6 Declension of nouns

3.6.1 Categories and declension classes of nouns

Most nouns decline, and express distinctions of case and number. Nouns that decline express two numbers and six basic cases,18 though no declension distinguishes all of the twelve logically possible forms.

The same markers of number and case are not used uniformly by all nouns. Rather, there is a set of patterns, or declensions, and each noun is assigned to one such class. Declensional classes then partition the lexicon of nouns, and might be termed m o r p h o l o g i c a l g e n d e r . Declensional classes are more clearly distinguished in the singular than in the plural; in the plural, the endings for the oblique cases of the dative, locative, and instrumental are the same for all nouns. In the nominative, accusative, genitive plural, each declension class has its preferred endings used by the majority of nouns of a class, but these are preferences, not absolutes. There are three large classes, or declensions. Declension<I> has two subclasses (Declension<Ia> and Declension<Ib>).19

The number of a noun is reflected by agreement in an attributive adjective and, if the noun is the subject, in the number of the finite verb. At the same time, adjectives and verbs in the past tense express another property of nouns. Nouns are partitioned into three classes, or s y n t a c t i c g e n d e r s , depending on whether they elicit masculine or feminine or neuter agreement in adjectives and verbs.20

In general, the two partitions of nouns -- morphological gender and syntactic gender -- correspond closely. Declension<Ib> is exclusively neuters, except for some isolated nouns (gjlvfcn†hmt ‘apprentice’)21 and derivatives (diminutives djhjyrj´ ‘crow’, cjkjd†qrj ‘nightingale’, augmentatives djkx∫ot ‘big wolf ’, gfhy∫ot ‘big fellow’, lehfx∫ot ‘enormous fool’). Conversely, almost all neuter

18On secondary cases: §5.5.

19The question of how many declension classes there are is less significant than it might appear. Recognizing fewer classes means recognizing more sub-declensions, and vice versa.

20On gender: Jakobson 1932/1971[b], 1960/1971[b], Zalizniak 1967, Stankiewicz 1978, van Schooneveld 1977.

21Zalizniak 1977[a]:54 cites cdthk∫kj ‘kind of beetle’, vfpkj´ ‘someone who smears’, words not in general currency.

Inf lectional morphology 131

nouns -- except for the dozen or so neuter nouns in Declension<IIIb> -- belong to Declension<Ib>. Declension<Ia> consists of masculine nouns. One interesting complication is that some nouns in Declension<Ia> that refer to people by occupation, such as dhƒx ‘doctor’, are coming to be used in reference to women and with feminine agreement in verbs and recently even in adjectives (§4.1.3). Syntactic gender is coming to be determined by the sex of the entity referred to -- that is, by the r e f e r e n t i a l g e n d e r . Declension<II> is feminine, with two large classes of exceptions. Descriptive nouns like ytgjc†lf ‘fidgety person’ or ytd†;lf ‘ignoramus’ can be used with either masculine or feminine agreement according to their reference; they are then common gender. Diminutive names like Nj´kz, :†yz, Cƒif and some isolated nouns (lz´lz ‘uncle’, celmz´ ‘judge’) are used to refer to males, and elicit masculine agreement in adjectives and verbs. Thus Declension<II> is feminine except for nouns referring to human beings whose syntactic gender follows referential gender. Declension<III> is feminine except for the masculine singleton génm ‘route’ and the near-dozen neuters. Overall, there is a significant degree of correspondence between syntactic gender (the patterns of agreement nouns condition in adjectives and verbs) and morphological gender (the declension class).22

Nouns belonging to Declension<Ia> that refer to animate beings ([12]) and all plural nouns that refer to animate beings ([13]) use the genitive form in syntactic contexts whenever the accusative case is appropriate (§4.1.6):

[12]Yt pyf/, eghtrfnm bkb [dfkbnm vjkjljuj<msc acc=gen> ht;bccthf<acc=gen> . I am not sure whether to criticize or praise the young director.

[13]Ntnz Cfif exbkf vtyz<acc=gen> b vjb[<acc=gen> vkflib[<acc=gen> ctcnth<acc=gen> . Aunt Sasha taught me and my younger sisters.

Here the notation “acc=gen” is used for cells in which this equivalence occurs. Except for animate nouns, nouns of Declension<Ia> do not distinguish nominative and accusative singular: nom cnj´k = acc cnj´k. Except for animates, plural nouns otherwise do not distinguish these cases: nom cnjkß = acc cnjkß. For these cells in paradigms, the notation “nom=acc” is used.

3.6.2 Hard, soft, and unpaired declensions

Nouns of Declension<Ia>, Declension<Ib>, and Declension<II> have two closely related variants. Some end in a “hard” mutable consonant (pfrj´y ‘law’, cnƒlj ‘flock’, ;tyƒ ‘woman’), others end in a “soft” mutable consonant (rj´ym ‘horse’, vj´ht ‘sea’, ytl†kz ‘week’). The hard and soft variants seem different in appearance, but the differences are only those that would be expected from rules of

22 Corbett 1982, 1988[a].

132 A Reference Grammar of Russian

spelling. Both “hard” and “soft” variants are listed for these declensions below.

In addition, the stems that end in the unpaired consonants [c ˇc ˇs ˇz s…˛], written

‹

≤w x i ; o≥, or [j], look slightly different, because special spelling rules for vowels are invoked after these consonants.

3.6.3 Accentual patterns

Each form of a noun has one vowel that is stressed. The vowel that is stressed is not necessarily the same vowel in every case--number form of a noun. The set of possibilities defines an a c c e n t u a l pa r a d i g m or stress pattern. There is a modest number of stress paradigms used by nouns. Some common threads can be distinguished across declension classes. (a) Stress on the root in both singular and plural, or {Rsg : Rpl}, is widespread: nom sg ytl†kz ‘week’, nom pl ytl†kb. (b) Some nouns have stress on the ending in both singular and plural, or {Esg : Epl}: nom sg uh†[ ‘sin’, gen sg uht[ƒ, nom pl uht[é (except when the ending is {-º}, when stress must be on the final syllable of the stem). (c) Some nouns have the opposite stress in singular and plural: {Esg : Rpl} nom sg jryj´ ‘window’, nom pl j´ryf, or, in the other direction, (d) {Rsg : Epl} nom sg ckj´dj ‘word’, nom pl ckjdƒ. In nouns that stress the oblique plural, stress may retract to the root in the nominative (and accusative) plural. This retraction can occur

(e) with root stress in the singular, or {Rsg : Epl(Rnom)}, as in nom sg pé, ‘tooth’, gen sg pé,f, nom pl pé,s, dat pl pe,ƒv, or (f) with end stress in the singular, or {Esg : Epl(Rnom)}, as in nom sg rj´ym, gen sg rjyz´, nom pl rj´yb, dat pl rjyz´v. These are the six most widespread patterns. In addition, a very small number of nouns in Declension<II> retract stress to the stem in the accusative singular, an alternation that requires an additional specification: nom sg leiƒ ‘soul’, acc

sg léie {Esg(Racc) : Rpl}.

3.6.4 Declension<Ia>

Declension<Ia> is characterized by the following properties: (a) it has no overt ending in the nominative singular (equivalently, the ending is {-º}); (b) it does not have a distinct accusative singular case form: the accusative is identical either to the nominative (inanimates) or to the genitive (animates); (c) it does not syncretize the genitive, dative, and locative singular; (d) it has the instrumental singular in {-om}; (e) it has both hard and soft stems that are largely parallel; (f ) the preferred nominative plural and genitive plural forms are nominative {-i} and an overt genitive {-ov} or {-ej}.

Stress patterns are restricted. Consistent stress on the root (= {Rsg: Rpl}) is the most usual, then consistent stress on the ending (= {Esg: Epl}). Other patterns occur, and are illustrated in Table 3.28, but are represented by small numbers of nouns.

Inf lectional morphology 133

Table 3.28 Declension<Ia>

		soft stem,		soft stem
	hard stem	[ j] augment	hard stem	(animate)	hard stem	hard stem
	{Rsg : Rpl }	{Esg : Rpl }	{Rsg : Epl (Rnom )}	{Esg : Epl (Rnom )}	{Rsg : Epl }	{Esg : Epl }
nom sg	pfdj´l	rj´k	pé,	rj´ym	x∫y	uh†[
acc sg	=nom	=nom	=nom	=gen	=nom	=nom
gen sg	pfdj´lf	rjkƒ	pé,f	rjyz´	x∫yf	uht[ƒ
dat sg	pfdj´le	rjké	pé,e	rjy÷	x∫ye	uht[é
loc sg	pfdj´lt	rjk†	pé,t	rjy†	x∫yt	uht[†
ins sg	pfdj´ljv	rjkj´v	pé,jv	rjy=v	x∫yjv	uht[j´v
nom pl	pfdj´ls	rj´kmz	pé,s	rj´yb	xbyß	uht[∫
acc pl	=nom	=nom	=nom	=gen	=nom	=nom
gen pl	pfdj´ljd	rj´kmtd	pe,j´d	rjy†q	xbyj´d	uht[j´d
dat pl	pfdj´lfv	rj´kmzv	pe,ƒv	rjyz´v	xbyƒv	uht[ƒv
loc pl	pfdj´lf[	rj´kmz[	pe,ƒ[	rjyz´[	xbyƒ[	uht[ƒ[
ins pl	pfdj´lfvb	rj´kmzvb	pe,ƒvb	rjyz´vb	xbyƒvb	uht[ƒvb
	‘factory’	‘stake’	‘tooth’	‘horse’	‘rank’	‘sin’

Soft stems, listed separately here, differ from hard stems only in orthographic details. In the nominative singular, a hard stem ends in a consonant letter; in soft stems, the final consonant letter is followed by ≤m≥, indicating that a mutable consonant is soft (palatalized). In other case forms, soft stems use the soft-vowel letter that corresponds to the hard-vowel letter used in hard stems, and it indicates that the consonant is palatalized. Thus the ≤z≥ letter marking the genitive singular of rjyz´ indicates that the consonant is palatalized ([n˛]) and that the vowel is [ƒ] under stress. The endings {-u} and {-i} behave in the same fashion, and differ in soft stems from hard stems only by choosing the appropriate vowel letter.

The locative singular of soft-stem nouns is identical to that of hard-stem nouns, since in fact the final consonant of hard stems is palatalized before {-e}. The instrumental singular is always spelled ≤jv≥ in hard stems. In soft stems, the ending, when it is stressed, is pronounced as [om] (with a preceding palatalized consonant) and can be spelled in explicit style as ≤=v≥, in neutral style as ≤tv≥; unstressed, it is ≤tv≥. The genitive plural endings of hard and soft stems differ in a more substantive way. Hard stems take {-ov}, spelled ≤jd≥, while soft stems take {-ej}, spelled ≤tq≥.

Unpaired stems -- that is, stems ending in the consonants [j] or [c c s z s…˛] --

‹‹‹‹

present some complications.

134 A Reference Grammar of Russian

Some nouns in Declension<Ia> end in [j] preceded by a vowel, or {-Vj-}, spelled as a vowel letter followed by ≤q≥: r∫q ‘pole’, vep†q ‘museum’, rhƒq ‘region, edge’, uthj´q ‘hero’, gjwtkéq ‘kiss’. In other case-number forms, the ending itself begins with a vowel, and the stem-final [j] is spelled by a following soft-vowel letter; for example, in gen sg rbz´, vep†z, rhƒz, uthj´z, gjwtkéz, the letter ≤z≥ spells the {-a} of the ending and the [j] of the stem. In the instrumental singular, the ending {-om} is spelled as it would be after soft stems: under stress, as ≤=v≥ (explicit style) or ≤tv≥ (neutral style): rb=v (rbtv), cjkjdm=v (cjkjdmtv). Not under stress, the ending is spelled ≤tv≥: vep†tv, cwtyƒhbtv. The genitive plural of nouns ending in stem-final [j] is like that of hard stems. The basic ending is {-ov}, spelled as ≤=d≥ (explicit style, under stress) or otherwise as ≤td≥: stressed rb=d (neutral rbtd), unstressed vep†td, rhƒtd, uthj´td, gjwtkétd. Before the {-i} of the nominative plural, the [j] is not actually pronounced: nom pl rb∫ is pronounced as [k˛ìí], not [k˛ìjí], similarly vep†b [eì], not [ejì], uthj´b, gjwtkéb.

In stems that end in {-ij-}, the locative singular is spelled ≤bb≥ rather than ≤bt≥: nom sg cwtyƒhbq ‘script’, loc sg cwtyƒhbb. With other vowels preceding the stem-final [j], the ordinary locative singular spelling ≤t≥ is used: nom sg uthj´q, loc sg uthj´t.

In some nouns there is an alternation of full-grade vocalism (nom sg hex†q ‘brook’) and null-grade vocalism (gen sg hexmz´) (§2.5.6). The genitive plural is {-ov}, with no vowel between the consonant and the [j]. The ending is spelled ≤td≥ (≤=d≥, explicit under stress): cjkjdmtd ‘nightingales’ (cjkjdm=d), hexmtd

(hexm=d).

Unpaired stems -- those ending in unpaired obstruents [ˇc ˇs ˇz s˛], written ≤x i

‹

; o≥ -- use the vowel letters they normally use: ≤f≥, ≤e≥ and, in the nominative plural, ≤b≥. The nominative singular is spelled without ≤m≥. In this way the ending-less nominative singular of nouns of this declension -- gfkƒx ‘hangman’, léi ‘shower’, yj´; ‘knife’, njdƒhbo ‘comrade’ -- can be distinguished in spelling from the ending-less nominative singular of nouns of Declension<IIIa> -- l∫xm ‘wildfowl’, ukéim ‘remote place’, hj´;m ‘rye’, d†om ‘thing’. In the instrumental singular ≤jv≥ is used when the ending is stressed, gfkfxj´v, yj;j´v, gkfoj´v; the ending is spelled ≤tv≥ when it is not stressed, gkƒxtv ‘crying’, cf,jnƒ;tv ‘sabotage’, néitv ‘ink’, njdƒhbotv ‘comrade’. The locative singular is ≤t≥. The genitive plural is {-ej}, not {-ov}: gfkfx†q, njdƒhbotq, a result of the fact that {-ej} was brought into Declension<Ia> by masculine nouns as they moved from the masculine i-stem declension into Declension<Ia>.

Stems in [c] behave much like those in [c ˇs ˇz s˛]. Endings that begin with {-a}

‹ ‹

or {-u} spell the ending with the hard-vowel letter. The instrumental singular is ≤jv≥ if stressed, as in jnwj´v, but ≤tv≥ if unstressed: cfvjpdƒywtv ‘pretender’. The genitive plural is {-ov}, spelled ≤jd≥ under stress (jnwj´d), ≤td≥ not under

Inf lectional morphology 135

Table 3.29 Stem types and endings, Declension<Ia>

	end stress |	gen sg	dat sg	ins sg	gen pl	nom pl
	stem stress	{-a}	{-u}	{-om}	{-ov} {-ej}	{-i}
hard	pfdj´l ‘factory’ |	-f	-e	-jv	-jd	-s
	dj´k ‘ox’			tv |
soft	uj´ke,m ‘dove’ |	-z	-/		-tq	-b
	rj´ym ‘horse’			-tv (-=v)
[c‹‹‹‹s z s…˛]	njdƒhbo ‘comrade’ |	-f	-e	tv |	-tq	-b
	gfkƒx ‘hangman’			-jv (-j´v)	-td |
[j]	vep†q ‘museum’	-z	-/	tv |		-b
	r∫q ‘pole’			-tv (-=v)	-td (-=d)
[c]	cfvjpdƒytw ‘pretender’	-f	-e	tv |	-td |	-s
	jn†w ‘father’			-jv (-j´v)	-jd (-j´d)

x | y (z) = unstressed ending | stressed ending, neutral spelling (stressed ending, explicit spelling)

stress (y†vwtd<gen pl> ‘Germans’). The nominative plural is spelled with ≤s≥, jnwß ‘fathers’, not ≤b≥.

The endings in the stem types of Declension<Ia> are listed in Table 3.29, with stressed and unstressed variants where relevant.

Declension<Ia> prefers a specific combination of endings in the nominative and genitive plural, namely nom pl {-i} and an overt genitive plural, {-ov} {-ej}.23 There are deviations from this basic preference for Declension<Ia>. For the most part, the deviations involve recognizable groups of nouns and, often, changes in the morphophonology of the stem. The following special groups can be distinguished.

Plural stem augment {-j-}: Thirty or so nouns use a stem augment in [j], an old collective suffix, throughout the plural. The nominative plural is {-a}, usually with the genitive plural {-ov} (rj´kjc ‘ear’, nom pl rjkj´cmz, gen pl rjkj´cmtd); a half-dozen allow the null ending, which implies a full vowel before the augment [j]: l†dthm ‘husband’s brother’, nom pl ltdthmz´, gen pl ltdth†q. A small number has a plural stem augmented by {-ovj-}: nom sg cßy ‘son’, nom pl csyjdmz´, gen pl csyjd†q. Along with {-j-}, lhéu ‘friend’ has an unusual consonant: nom pl lhepmz´, gen pl lhep†q.24

23Jakobson 1957[b]/1971[b], Graudina 1964[a], 1964[b], Mahota 1993, Brown and Hippisley 1994.

24This unusual grade, not recorded among the morphophonemic alternations (§2.5.2), goes back to the second palatalization of velars. It would have been justified specifically before nom pl {-i}; the consonant was preserved as the noun adopted the {-j} augment for the stem throughout the plural.

136A Reference Grammar of Russian

Stressed N O M P L {-ƒ}: A number of nouns have stressed {-ƒ} in the nominative plural, which implies end stress throughout the plural (hence {Rsg : Epl}); the genitive plural is the usual: nom sg ,†htu ‘bank, shore’, nom pl ,thtuƒ, gen

,thtuj´d; nom sg bycg†rnjh ‘inspector’, nom pl bycgtrnjhƒ, gen bycgtrnjhj´d; nom sg ex∫ntkm ‘teacher’, nom pl exbntkz´, gen exbntk†q; nom sg rhƒq ‘edge’, nom pl rhfz´, gen pl rhf=d.

This pattern is avoided with nouns that have consistent end stress (exception: herƒd ‘sleeve’, gen sg = nom pl herfdƒ) and, among trisyllabic stems, with

nouns whose ultimate syllable is stressed (nom sg ht;bcc=h ‘director’, nom pl ht;bcc=hs, not ht;bccthƒ).

This ending has a complex history. It derives from the nominative dual of nouns that belonged to the mobile accentual paradigm, such as earlier nom du ,thtuƒ ‘(two) shores’. It was extended first to nouns that come in groups or clusters, such as ljvƒ ‘houses’, djkjcƒ ‘head of hair’ (opposed to dj´kjcs ‘strands of hair’). Then it was applied to (often borrowed) names of occupations, ghjatccjhƒ ‘professors’, rjylernjhƒ ‘conductors’, bycnhernjhƒ ‘instructors’, and to implements and professional accoutrements, rfnthƒ ‘launches’, nhfrnjhƒ ‘tractors’, ljujdjhƒ ‘agreements’, even cjecƒ ‘sauces’, njhnƒ ‘pastries’. Thus the pattern has been productive, inasmuch as it was used for new words. Yet at the same time, even during its heyday at the beginning of the twentieth century, the ending acquired the connotation of trade jargon (“de m†tier”), while “les classes cultiv†es manifestent au contraire de la r†pugnance à employer ces formes.”25

Consistent with this paradoxical productivity and censure, the sociolinguistic investigation from the 1960s (Krysin 1974) reports a mixed picture. The use of this ending increased with certain nouns (by;ty†h ‘engineer’, rƒnth, nhƒrnjh) and decreased with others (rjylérnjh, htlƒrnjh ‘editor’, ck†cfhm ‘carpenter’, nj´rfhm ‘turner’). For a third group, usage peaked in the cohort born 1930--39 and then declined (,e[uƒknth ‘bookkeeper’, ija=h ‘chauffeur’). Other words can be documented to be losing {-ƒ}, especially in neologisms: compare uhj´,s archaic uhj,ƒ ‘graves’, r†kmyths ‘waiters’ archaic rtkmythƒ, or ljvƒ ‘houses, buildings’ but newer ltnljvƒ l†nljvs ‘orphanages, children’s homes’. Thus this suffix, though it has been productive, has also been restricted by sociolinguistic factors. Its history is a cautionary tale against the presumption that change, once begun, will necessarily continue in a linear fashion.

Ethnonyms: Nouns characterizing individuals by place of origin or membership in an ethnic group are commonly built on the suffix {-an-}, and the singular has an additional suffix {-in-}. The plural lacks the second morph and uses an

25Beaulieux 1914:212. Zalizniak 1977[b], noting doublets, argues that the {-ƒ} pattern can be adopted as a marker of professional jargon, in contradistinction to general usage. See Shapiro 1985.

Inf lectional morphology 137

otherwise unique ending {-e} and the null ending in the genitive plural: nom sg fhvzy∫y ‘Armenian’, nom pl fhvz´yt, gen pl fhvz´y; nom sg hjcnjdxƒyby ‘person from Rostov’, nom pl hjcnjdxƒyt, gen pl hjcnjdxƒy. (The nominative plural ending is historically e, spelled as ≤t≥; since it is not stressed, it is consistently pronounced as [ì].) The pattern has been a productive way of deriving ethnonyms. Just over one hundred items are cited in Zalizniak 1977[a].

Parts of this pattern for ethnonyms can occur without others. Uhf;lfy∫y ‘citizen’ has nom pl {-e}, gen pl {-º}, with a stress shift: uhƒ;lfyt, uhƒ;lfy. Three nouns have {-in-} in the singular but without {-an-}, and nom pl {-i} and gen pl {-º}: nom sg ,jkuƒhby ‘Bulgarian’, nom pl ,jkuƒhs, gen pl, ,jkuƒh; nom sg nfnƒhby ‘Tatar’, nom pl nfnƒhs, gen pl nfnƒh. One noun has variation: nom sg ,ƒhby ‘barin’, nom pl ,ƒht ,ƒhs, gen pl, ,ƒh. Ujcgjl∫y ‘gentleman’ loses {-in-} and uses stressed {-ƒ-} along with genitive plural zero: nom pl ujcgjlƒ, gen pl ujcgj´l. {jpz´by ‘master’ acquires an augment {-ev-} and uses nom pl {-a} -- unstressed -- along with a zero in the genitive plural: nom sg [jpz´by, nom pl [jpz´tdf, gen pl [jpz´td. Iéhby ‘brother-in-law’ loses the {-in-} suffix and acquires {-j-} as an augment, with {-ov} in the genitive plural: nom sg iéhby, nom pl iehmz´, gen pl iehm=d (recently nom sg iéhby, nom pl iéhbys, gen pl iéhbyjd). Wsuƒy ‘Gypsy’ has the plural in {-e} and genitive plural (normally) in {-º}, though it lacks the suffix {-in-}.

Some ethnonyms that have neither singular {-in-} nor nom pl {-e} have the {-º} as the preferred or unique gen pl: nom sg ,fir∫h ‘Bashkir’, nom pl ,fir∫hs, gen pl ,fir∫h; nom sg uhep∫y ‘Georgian’, nom pl uhep∫ys, gen pl uhep∫y; nom sg ktpu∫y ‘Lezgian’, nom pl ktpu∫ys, gen pl ktpu∫y; nom sg hevßy ‘Rumanian’, nom pl hevßys, gen pl hevßy; nom sg néhjr ‘Turk’, nom pl néhrb, gen pl néhjr. For others there is variation between {-º} and {-ov} in the genitive plural: gen pl,

,ehz´n ,ehz´njd ‘Buriats’, gen pl rfh†k rfh†kjd ‘Karelians’, gen pl nehrv†y nehrv†yjd ‘Turkmen’. Still exotic ethnonyms use {-ov} in the genitive plural:

,tle∫y (gen pl ,tle∫yjd) ‘Bedouins’, ,th,†h (gen pl ,th,†hjd) ‘Berbers’, ,eiv†y (gen pl ,eiv†yjd) ‘Bushmen’, rfkvßr (gen pl rfkvßrjd) ‘Kalmyks’, nfl;∫r (gen pl nfl;∫rjd) ‘Tajiks’, neyuéc (gen pl neyuécjd) ‘Tunguz’, ep,†r (gen pl ep,†rjd) ‘Uzbeks’, [jhdƒn (gen pl [jhdƒnjd) ‘Croatians’.

The usage in the genitive plural of ethnonyms was investigated in quantitative contexts by Vorontsova (1976). Her results, summarized for four ethnonyms in Table 3.30, were consistent with normative recommendations for usage. The highest percentage of {-º} was recorded for uhep∫y (84%), with normative {-º}. At the other extreme, a low percentage of {-º} was reported for vj´yujk (20%), for which {-ov} is normative. Intermediate usage was reported for nehrv†y (50%), which allows variation, and for ,fir∫h (67%), with normative {-º}. In recent usage on the web (four right-hand columns in Table 3.30 <20.XII.01>), the distribution of {-º} and {-ov} seems to have polarized. Context seems to play

138 A Reference Grammar of Russian

Table 3.30 Genitive plural

{ -

}

of ethnonyms

	normative	Vorontsova
	usage	(1976)	quantifiers	prepositions	dct[	genitive
uhepby(jd)	{- }	84	98	96	91	100
,firbh(jd)	{- }	67	100	97	97	90
nehrvty(jd)	{- } {-ov}	50	69	86	96	90
vjyujk(jd)	{-ov}	20	5	4	6	6

quantifiers = vyjuj, nsczx prepositions = e, jn

genitive = bcnjhbz ghtlrb pf bcrk/xtybtv all figures are percentages

Table 3.31 Morphology of ethnonyms

		stem augment {-an-}	singular augment {-in-}	nom pl	gen pl
	rfke;ƒyby	√	√	{-e}	{- }
			√
	,jkuƒhby			{-e}	{- }
	,fir∫h			{-i}	{- }
	,ehz´n			{-i}	{- } {-ov}
	[jhdƒn			{-i}	{-ov}

little role, except that quantifiers have kept nehrv†y from fully generalizing

{-ov}.

The range of options for ethnonyms is summarized in Table 3.31.

Young animals: The plural of names for the young of animals, with the suffix {-at-}, have a neuter-like combination of endings, namely nom pl {-a}, gen pl {-º}: ntk=yjr ‘calf ’, nom pl ntkz´nf, acc=gen pl ntkz´n; rjn=yjr ‘kitten’, nom pl rjnz´nf, acc=gen pl rjnz´n; ht,=yjr ‘boy’, nom pl ht,z´nf, acc=gen pl ht,z´n. This is because the plural suffix is historically a neuter; the nouns appear to belong to Declension<Ia> only because that suffix has been paired with the suffix {-on<o>k-} in the singular; this suffix puts the noun in Declension<Ia> in the singular. By virtue of having different suffixes in the singular and plural, these nouns switch declensional allegiance between singular and plural.

Counted nouns: While it is usual for nouns of Declension<Ia> to have an overt ending in the genitive plural, the archaic null ending is preserved in nouns belonging to certain lexical fields that are commonly used in quantitative constructions: ethnonyms (as just illustrated), units of measurement (17% ltcznm

Inf lectional morphology 139

rbkjuhfvv ‘ten kilograms’, 29% vyjuj rbkjuhfvb <04.XI.02>), commonly measured items (e.g., vegetables), military roles (cfg=h ‘sapper’, uecƒh ‘Hussar’, lhfuéy ‘dragoon’, rfl†n ‘cadet’), and paired items (cfgj´u ‘boot’). The null ending is not purely residual, to judge by the occasional use of gen pl r†l ‘Keds’ (cnhtkmyenm ,s gfhe rtl e dfc ytkmpz kb? ‘is it possible I might bum a pair of Keds from you?’) alongside r†ljd (tckb [jnm gfhe rtljd yt dsytce, bcgjhxtyj yfcnhjtybt yf dtcm ltym ‘if I don’t carry out at least one pair of Keds, my mood is shot for the whole day’).26

Stem alternation: Two nouns have an idiosyncratic alternation of hard singular stem and soft plural stem: nom sg cjc†l ‘neighbor’, nom pl cjc†lb, gen pl cjc†ltq and nom sg x=hn ‘devil’, nom pl x†hnb, gen pl xthn†q.

3.6.5 Declension<Ib>

Declension<Ib> (Table 3.32) is almost exclusively neuter, except for derivatives of masculines (ujhjl∫irj ‘town’, njgjh∫ot ‘ax’) and isolated masculines (notably, gjlvfcn†hmt ‘apprentice’, an animate noun that participates in the animate accusative). Declension<Ib> differs from Declension<Ia> in the singular by having an overt ending in the nominative. When, rarely, this ending is stressed, both after hard and soft consonants, this ending is [o]⁄(e.g., ;bkm= ‘dwelling’). In the plural, Declension<Ib> prefers a nominative in {-a} and genitive in {-º}.

Although the expected nominative singular is [o]⁄under stress, three original event nouns have stressed [†] in the nominative singular (and in the instrumental): ;bnb† ‘life’, loc sg ;bnb∫, ins sg ;bnb†v; also ,snb† ‘being’, gbnb† ‘drinking’. Here [†] reflects the failure of e > j in these historical Slavonicisms.

Only three members of Declension<Ib> have stems ending in paired soft consonants: gj´kt ‘field’, vj´ht ‘sea’, uj´ht ‘woe’, with overt genitive plural (gjk†q). Productive are event nouns in {-C¸-ij-}, whose locative singular is spelled ≤bb≥ and whose genitive plural is {-ij-º}, spelled ≤bq≥, such as nom sg plƒybt, loc sg plƒybb, gen pl plƒybq. A similar suffix is used to form abstracts or collectives that are not deverbal, such as vyjujk÷lmt ‘populousness’, gjlgj´kmt ‘underground’, rjgm= ‘lance’. With nouns of this shape, the genitive plural is usually {C¸-Vj-º}. The sequence is spelled ≤bq≥ if it is unstressed (eo†kmt ‘ravine’, gen pl eo†kbq), ≤tq≥ if it is stressed (gbnm= ‘drinking’, gen pl gbn†q). (Gen pl hé;tq, from he;m= ‘rifle’, is exceptional.) Although the null ending is the general rule for nouns of this declension, a dozen or so nouns of this shape use the genitive plural in

26 Vorontsova 1976 suggests that different lexical fields have different directions of development, though the differences are not profound. Use of {-º} declined slightly for ethnonyms, but increased slightly for fruits and vegetables (fgtkmc∫y from 26% to 39% -- with a peak of 42% in the next-to-youngest generation!) and paired items (yjc´or from 25% to 45%).

140 A Reference Grammar of Russian

Table 3.32 Declension<Ib>

	soft stem	soft stem
	{-Cj-}	{-ij-}	hard stem	hard stem	hard stem	hard stem
	{R sg : Rpl }	{R sg : Rpl }	{Esg : Rpl }	{R sg : Epl (Rnom )}	{Rsg : Epl }	{Esg : Epl }
nom sg	eo†kmt	plƒybt	kbwj´	rhskmwj´	v†cnj	ceotcndj´
acc sg	=nom	=nom	=nom	=nom	=nom	=nom
gen sg	eo†kmz	plƒybz	kbwƒ	rhskmwƒ	v†cnf	ceotcndƒ
dat sg	eo†km/	plƒyb/	kbwé	rhskmwé	v†cne	ceotcndé
loc sg	eo†kmt	plƒybb	kbw†	rhskmw†	v†cnt	ceotcnd†
ins sg	eo†kmtv	plƒybtv	kbwj´v	rhskmwj´v	v†cnjv	ceotcndj´v
nom pl	eo†kmz	plƒybz	k∫wf	rhßkmwf	vtcnƒ	ceotcndƒ
acc pl	=nom	=nom	=nom<in>	=nom	=nom	=nom<in>
			gen<an>			gen<an>
gen pl	eo†kbq	plƒybq	k∫w	rhsk†w	v†cn	ceo†cnd
dat pl	eo†kmzv	plƒybzv	k∫wfv	rhskmwƒv	vtcnƒv	ceotcndƒv
loc pl	eo†kmz[	plƒybz[	k∫wf[	rhskmwƒ[	vtcnƒ[	ceotcndƒ[
ins pl	eo†kmzvb	plƒybzvb	k∫wfvb	rhskmwƒvb	vtcnƒvb	ceotcndƒvb
	‘gorge’	‘building’	‘face’	‘porch’	‘place’	‘creature’

{-ov} instead: nom sg écnmt ‘estuary’, gen pl écnmtd. The frequent noun gkƒnmt ‘dress’ belongs here (gen pl gkƒnmtd), as does jcnhb= ‘point’ (gen pl jcnhb=d). Some nouns have variation: nom sg gjlgj´kmt ‘cellar’, gen pl gjlgj´kmtd gjlgj´kbq; nom sg dth[j´dmt ‘upper reaches’, gen pl dth[j´dmtd dth[j´dbq. The overt genitive plural {-ov} occurs with nouns which use the collective {-j-} augment in the plural, such as gthj´ ‘feather’, nom pl g†hmz, gen pl g†hmtd, and also with ´,kfrj ‘cloud’ (nom pl j,kfrƒ, gen pl j,kfrj´d). The event nouns in {-C¸-ij-} have the locative spelled ≤bb≥, while the deverbals and collectives in {-C¸-j-} should have the locative spelled ≤mt≥. There was variation in the nineteenth century between ≤mb≥ and ≤m˜≥. The alternate spelling is still reflected in the idiom d gjkepf,snm∫ ‘in half-forgetfulness’.

Diminutives in {-c-} have the expected nominative plural in {-a} but show variation in the genitive plural between {-ov} and {-º} (if the ending is {-º}, the consonant cluster is broken up with the full vowel <e>). Ten older nouns use only {-º}: nom sg ,k÷lwt ‘saucer’, nom pl ,k÷lwf, gen pl ,k÷ltw, also c†hlwt

‘heart’, gjkjn†ywt ‘towel’, p†hrfkmwt ‘mirror’, vßkmwt ‘soap’. And only {-º} (with full grade) is used for nouns with this suffix when the ending is stressed: nom sg ckjdwj´ ‘word’ nom pl ckjdwƒ, gen pl ckjd†w. Some two dozen younger derivatives use both {-º} and {-ov}: nom sg rjgßnwt ‘hoof ’, nom pl rjgßnwf, gen pl rjgßntw rjgßnwtd. The {-ov} ending is regular in ,jkj´nwt ‘swamp’, gen pl ,jkj´nwtd.

				Inf lectional morphology 141
Table 3.33 Declension<II>
	soft stem	soft stem {-Vj-}	hard stem	hard stem
	{R sg : Rpl }	{R sg : Rpl }	{Esg : Rpl }	{Esg (Racc ): Rpl }
nom sg	ytl†kz	k∫ybz	;tyƒ	leiƒ
acc sg	ytl†k/	k∫yb/	;tyé	léie
gen sg	ytl†kb	k∫ybb	;tyß	lei∫
dat sg	ytl†kt	k∫ybb	;ty†	lei†
loc sg	ytl†kt	k∫ybb	;ty†	lei†
ins sg	ytl†ktq	k∫ybtq	;tyj´q	leij´q
nom pl	ytl†kb	k∫ybb	;=ys	léib
acc pl	=nom	=nom	=gen	=nom
gen pl	ytl†km	k∫ybq	;=y	léi
dat pl	ytl†kzv	k∫ybzv	;=yfv	léifv
loc pl	ytl†kz[	k∫ybz[	;=yf[	léif[
ins pl	ytl†kzvb	k∫ybzvb	;=yfvb	léifvb
	‘week’	‘line’	‘wife’	‘soul’

The combination of nom pl {-i} and gen pl {-º}, characteristic of Declension<Ia>, is found with nouns ending in a velar: nom sg d†rj ‘eyelid’, nom pl d†rb, gen pl d†r; nom sg z´,kjrj ‘apple’, nom pl z´,kjrb, gen pl z´,kjr; also nom sg gk†xj ‘shoulder’, nom pl gk†xb, gen pl gk†x. This combination of nom pl {-i} and gen pl {-º} occurs as a rule with certain gradated forms: ljv∫irj ‘house’, jrj´irj ‘window’, fh,épbot ‘melon’ (§3.6.8). Isolated is nom sg é[j ‘ear’, nom pl éib, gen pl ei†q (similarly, archaic ´rj ‘eye’, j´xb, jx†q).

In Declension<Ib> consistent root stress and consistent end stress are again statistically the most prominent, in part because suffixed derivatives fall into one or the other class: {Rsg : Rpl} ;∫ntkmcndj ‘residence’, {Esg : Epl} rjkljdcndj´ ‘sorcery’. Some high-frequency nouns fall into the two complementary patterns which oppose singular and plural by stress: {Rsg : Epl} nom sg v†cnj ‘place’, nom pl vtcnƒ and {Esg : Rpl} nom sg kbwj´ ‘face’, nom pl k∫wf.

3.6.6 Declension<II>

Alone of the declensions, Declension<II> (Table 3.33) distinguishes the nominative and accusative in the singular. This declension also merges the dative and the locative singular (but not the genitive singular). The accusative plural is merged with the nominative or genitive, by animacy, as in all paradigms. Again, hard and soft stems do not differ other than orthographically. With stems ending in {-Vj-}, the [j] is spelled by the following soft-vowel letter of the ending: k∫ybz ‘line’, pfn†z ‘trouble’, [dj´z ‘needles’, xtiez´ ‘fish scales’. The dative and

142 A Reference Grammar of Russian

Table 3.33 (cont.)

	soft stem	hard stem	hard stem	hard stem
	{R sg : Epl (Rnom )}	{E sg : Epl (Rnom )}	{Esg (Racc ): Epl (Rnom )}	{Esg : Epl }
nom sg	lj´kz	ue,ƒ	ujhƒ	gj[dfkƒ
acc sg	lj´k/	ue,é	uj´he	gj[dfké
gen sg	lj´kb	ue,ß	ujhß	gj[dfkß
dat sg	lj´kt	ue,†	ujh†	gj[dfk†
loc sg	lj´kt	ue,†	ujh†	gj[dfk†
ins sg	lj´ktq	ue,j´q	ujhj´q	gj[dfkj´q
nom pl	lj´kb	ué,s	uj´hs	gj[dfkß
acc pl	=nom	=nom	=nom	=nom
gen pl	ljk†q	ué,	uj´h	gj[dƒk
dat pl	ljkz´v	ue,ƒv	ujhƒv	gj[dfkƒv
loc pl	ljkz´[	ue,ƒ[	ujhƒ[	gj[dfkƒ[
ins pl	ljkz´vb	ue,ƒvb	ujhƒvb	gj[dfkƒvb
	‘lot’	‘lip’	‘mountain’	‘praise’

locative singular is ≤bb≥ for stems in {-ij-}: dat=loc sg bcnj´hbb ‘history’ but dat=loc sg pfn†t. Before endings in {-i}, the [j] is not pronounced.

In the plural, the nominative is universally {-i}, and the genitive is preferentially {-º}. For stems in {-Vj-}, the genitive plural is spelled with ≤q≥ (pfn†q, bcnj´hbq). The final paired consonant of soft-stem nouns normally remains palatalized, and is spelled ≤m≥: ytl†kz ‘week’, gen pl ytl†km; pfhz´ ‘dawn’, gen pl pj´hm. Nouns in {-Cj-} have a null ending with full grade inserted between the consonant and [j]. That vowel is spelled ≤t≥ under stress (cdby†q ‘swine’, cnfn†q ‘articles’) and ≤b≥. unstressed (gen pl uj´cnbq ‘guests’).

The overt gen pl {-ej} is possible with certain soft-stem nouns: lz´lz ‘uncle’, gen pl lz´ltq; lj´kz ‘portion’, gen pl ljk†q; cntpz´ ‘way’, gen pl cntp†q. Sometimes {-ej} occurs alongside {-º}: ghjcnsyz´ ‘sheet’, gen pl ghjcnßym ghjcnsy†q; hfcn†hz ‘absent-minded person’, gen pl hfcn†hm hfcn†htq; vt;ƒ ‘boundary’, gen pl vt;†q v†;. The overt ending is also possible with some soft-stem nouns ending in a cluster: yjplhz´ ‘nostril’, yjplh†q, though other nouns use {-º} and an inserted vowel: rƒgkz ‘drop’, gen pl rƒgtkm; g†nkz ‘loop’, gen pl g†ntkm; ptvkz´ ‘land’, gen pl ptv†km. Nouns in {-Cn˛-} insert a vowel with {-º} ending and, contrary to the general principle of maintaining palatalization, usually harden the consonant: g†cyz ‘song’, gen pl g†cty; ,ƒiyz ‘tower’, ,ƒity; cgƒkmyz ‘bedroom’, cgƒkty. This hardening in turn has exceptions: lth†dyz ‘village’ gen pl lthtd†ym; ,ƒhsiyz ‘gentryman’s daughter’, ,ƒhsitym.

Declension<II> has an interesting archaic stress paradigm, in which the stress retracted from the ending to the root in the accusative singular and nominative

Inf lectional morphology 143

Table 3.34 Declensions<IIIa, IIIb, IIIc>

			IIIa, animate,
	IIIa	IIIa	stem augment	IIIa	IIIb	IIIc
	{Rsg : Rpl }	{Rsg :Epl (Rnom )}	{Rsg :Epl (Rnom )}	{Esg : Epl }	{Rsg : Epl }	{Esg : Epl }
nom sg	ntnhƒlm	yj´djcnm	lj´xm	k/,j´dm	dh†vz	génm
acc sg	= nom	= nom	= nom	= nom	= nom	= nom
gen sg	ntnhƒlb	yj´djcnb	lj´xthb	k/,d∫	dh†vtyb	gen∫
dat sg	ntnhƒlb	yj´djcnb	lj´xthb	k/,d∫	dh†vtyb	gen∫
loc sg	ntnhƒlb	yj´djcnb	lj´xthb	k/,d∫	dh†vtyb	gen∫
ins sg	ntnhƒlm/	yj´djcnm/	lj´xthm/	k/,j´dm/	dh†vtytv	gen=v
nom pl	ntnhƒlb	yj´djcnb	lj´xthb	k/,d∫	dhtvtyƒ	gen∫
acc pl	= nom	= nom	= gen	= nom	= nom	= nom
gen pl	ntnhƒltq	yjdjcn†q	ljxth†q	k/,d†q	dhtv=y	gen†q
dat pl	ntnhƒlzv	yjdjcnz´v	ljxthz´v	k/,dz´v	dhtvtyƒv	genz´v
loc pl	ntnhƒlz[	yjdjcnz´[	ljxthz´[	k/,dz´[	dhtvtyƒ[	genz´[
ins pl	ntnhƒlzvb	yjdjcnz´vb	ljxthmv∫	k/,dz´vb	dhtvtyƒvb	genz´vb
	‘notebook’	‘news item’	‘daughter’	‘love’	‘time’	‘journey’

plural, or {Esg (Racc): Rpl}, ujhƒ ‘mountain’. The pattern is unproductive, and it is moving in the direction of {Esg : Rpl}, the pattern of ;tyƒ, ;=ys. Along the way, transitional stages have developed: stress can be regularized first in the accusative singular while the oblique plural remains stressed, as in {Esg Epl(Rnom)}, nom sg ue,ƒ, acc sg ue,é (earlier ué,e), dat pl ue,ƒv, or the oblique plural adopts root stress leaving the stress on the stem in the accusative singular, as in {Esg(Racc) : Rpl}, nom sg leiƒ, acc sg léie, nom pl léib, dat pl léifv

(earlier leiƒv). Different nouns have changed at different rates. Celm,ƒ ‘fate’ has almost completely gone over from {Esg : Epl(Rnom)} to {Esg : Rpl}, except for the archaic genitive plural cel†, (now célt,) and the idiom rfr∫vb celm,ƒvb (otherwise ins pl célm,fvb). Cnjhjyƒ ‘side’ is normatively {Esg(Racc) : Epl(Rnom)}, but warnings in manuals suggest the future may see both the elimination of the accusative singular stem stress (acc sg cnj´hjye > cnjhjyé) and end stress in the oblique plural (dat pl cnjhjyƒv > cnj´hjyfv). Htrƒ ‘river’ allows variation in both positions: acc sg htré h†re, dat pl htrƒv h†rfv.

3.6.7 Declension<III>

The three variants of Declension<III> are characterized by the syncretic ending {-i} in genitive, dative, locative singular (see Table 3.34). Feminine Declension<IIIa>, relatively numerous, has nom sg {-º}, ins sg {-ju}, nom pl {-i}, and gen pl {-ej}.

144 A Reference Grammar of Russian

In Declension<IIIa> the consonant is an unpaired consonant (dj´im) or paired soft; w†hrjdm allows a hard stem in the oblique plural (wthrdƒv wthrdzv). A small number of nouns have null grade alternating with full grade: nom sg dj´im

‘louse’, gen=dat=loc sg di∫, ins sg dj´im/; w†hrjdm ‘church’, gen=dat=loc sg w†hrdb, ins sg w†hrjdm/. The two feminine nouns referring to people express animacy in the plural, but not in the singular: nom=acc sg vƒnm, acc=gen pl vfnth†q; nom=acc sg lj´xm, acc=gen pl ljxth†q. These nouns also preserve an archaic alternation in the shape of the stem.

Stress patterns in Declension<IIIa> are limited. Most usual are {Rsg : Rpl} and {Rsg : Epl(Rnom)}. A dozen or so nouns have the stress pattern {Rsg : Epl(Rnom)}, with the proviso that, in the locative singular, stress shifts to the end to make loc2: nom sg j´cm, loc1 j´cb, loc2 jc∫. Pattern {Esg : Epl} is found with k/,j´dm and some other nouns. Génm, the lone masculine member of Declension<IIIc>, is genuine {Esg : Epl}. Certain numerals have the singular form of this stress (gz´nm, gen=dat=loc sg gzn∫), with no stress retraction in the instrumental (ins gznm÷). The normative accentuation of uhélm was originally {Esg : Epl(Rnom)} with retraction in the instrumental singular (gen=dat=loc uhel∫, ins uhélm/) and alternation in the plural (nom pl uhélb, dat pl uhelz´v). The genitive and dative singular now show variation (uhél∫). In Declension<IIIb> almost universal is

{Rsg : Epl} (∫vz ‘name’, gen=dat=loc sg ∫vtyb, nom pl bvtyƒ, dat pl bvtyƒv). Only pyƒvz ‘banner’ differs, with stem stress in the singular (gen=dat=loc sg pyƒvtyb) and pre-desinential stress in the plural (nom pl pyfv=yf, dat pl pyfv=yfv).

A handful of nouns of Declension<IIIa> still preserve the older instrumental ending {-m˛i} (spelled ≤mvb≥), though it is close to gone. According to normative recommendations, the old ending is preferred with kjiflmv∫ ‘horses’, ljxthmv∫ ‘daughters’, possible but not preferred with ldthmv∫ ‘doors’, archaic or limited to fixed phrases with ujhcnmv∫ ‘handfuls’, rktnmv∫ ‘containers’, (k†xm) rjcnmv∫ ‘lay down one’s bones’.27 The ending is still usual with ltnmv∫ ‘children’, k/lmv∫ ‘people’ (though these nouns are not usually included in Declension<III>).

There are ten neuter nouns in Declension<IIIb>: ,h†vz ‘burden’, dh†vz ‘time’, dßvz ‘udder’, pyƒvz ‘banner’, ∫vz ‘name’, gk†vz ‘tribe’, gkƒvz ‘flame’, c†vz ‘seed’, cnh†vz ‘stirrup’, n†vz ‘crown [of head]’. Declension<IIIb> has a nominative singular which is spelled ≤z≥ (pronounced [ə]). The nominative (and accusative) singular uses a diminished stem without the {-Vn-} of other cases. Declension<IIIb> uses an instrumental {-em}, nominative plural {-a}, and genitive {-º}: ins sg ∫vtytv, nom pl bvtyƒ, gen pl bv=y. These are characteristics

27Usage on the web (<04.XI.02>) is consistent with the normative rules: kjiflmv∫ 99%, ljxthmv∫

88%, ldthmv∫ 32%, ujhcnmv∫ 0.8%.